Psychopathology Flashcards
(81 cards)
1
Q
define mental disorder
A
ppl displaying abnormal moods, thoughts and behaviours that are long lasting
2
Q
why is psychopathology research good for the economy
A
helps find treatments that make ppl healthier, more productive, preventing absenteeism
3
Q
what are the 2 ways doctors use to diagnose patients who might have a mental disorder
A
- DSM (Diagnostic+Statistical manual of mental disorders)
- self report techniques (asks pps to provide info about own feelings, behaviours, thoughts)
4
Q
what are the 4 definitions of abnormality
A
- deviation from social norms
- deviation from ideal mental health
- Failure to function adequately
- Statistical infrequency
5
Q
definition of abnormality : deviation from social norms DEFINITION
A
Abnormal when their behaviour doesn’t follow/deviate from their social norms which are unwritten rules of how members of a social group are expected to behave
6
Q
definition of abnormality : deviation from social norms STRENGTH (2)
A
+ someone who constantly behaves in an anti-social manner could be termed socially deviant: their socially deviant behaviour may be symptoms of schizophrenia, proper of treatment can be prescribed for them
+ Social norms are in place to ensure that societies are harmonious and run smoothly, Identifying socially deviant behaviour is one way of protecting members of a society from distressing or harmful acts committed by others
7
Q
definition of abnormality : deviation from social norms WEAKNESSES (2)
A
- diagnosis of mental disorders are not consistent overtime, lack reliability/temporal validity as our classification of mental disorders has to be updated frequently due to social norms changing. e.g. homosexuality was included; was something you had to treat until 1974, removed since then, as homosexuality is more accepted as a social norm, anorexia nervosa was added later on
- Ethnic minorities will/can be misdiagnosed as having a mental disorder/considered abnormal as they are judged by social norms that are different to their social norms of their culture.
8
Q
definition of abnormality :deviation from ideal mental health DEFINITION
A
What a person deviates from ideal mental health the more abnormal they are to determine if a person has ideal manage mental health or not use Jahodah’s criteria
9
Q
definition of abnormality : deviation from ideal mental health STRENGTH
A
+ enables patients who are diagnosed as abnormal to set themselves clear goals for achieving ideal mental health
10
Q
definition of abnormality : deviation from ideal mental health WEAKNESSES (2)
A
- criteria is unrealistic + overly demanding -> (Constantly self-actualising would be exhausting, lead to self-doubt and disappointment), (Being completely free of stress is not particularly desirable as stress is a necessary motivator in daily life)
- culture bias as it emphasises the importance of individual which is not aligned with attitudes and beliefs of collectivist cultures, Collectivist cultures value ‘we/us’ rather than ‘I/me’ which, what is best for the group rather than for the individual -> limits usefulness of this definition to certain cultural groups therefore lacks generalisability
11
Q
PRABES
Jahodas criterea to ideal mental health + definitions
A
- POSITIVE SELF ATTITUDE = feels postitive about themselves +abilities
- RESISTANCE TO STRESS = able to cope with small hassles + stress in everyday life
- ACCURATE PERCEPTION OF REALITY = sees world in similar way to others around them
- BEHAVING INDEPENDENTLY = able to do things by themselves, without relying on others
- ENVIRONMENTAL MASTERY = can adjust to new situations easily
- SELF ACTUALISATION = constantly tries to develop + improve themselves
12
Q
definition of abnormality : Failure to function adequately DEFINITION
A
A person is abnormal if they are unable to cope with everyday life
13
Q
definition of abnormality : Failure to function adequately STRENGTH
A
+ behaviours used to identify abnormality can be easily observed and measured, easily identified and diagnosed
14
Q
definition of abnormality :Failure to function adequately WEAKNESSES (3)
A
- fails to identify ppl who cope well with everyday life, but have mental disorder e.g psychopaths would be considered abnormal due to their lack of empathy, but many tend to function well+ hold positions of authority in society who show no personal distress, ppl can still function normally even with a mental disorder
- culturally biased, someone who is functioning adequately is different across all cultures e.g lower class/ non-white ppl more frequently diagnosed as lifestyles differ from dominant western culture ->may lead to judgement
- subjective, some people have diff ideas to what failure to function is, we all sometimes behave in ways that are bad for us, that causes us to fail to cope but not all maladaptive behaviour is a sign of mental disorder, relies on individual judgement
15
Q
definition of abnormality : Statistical infrequency DEFINITION
A
Behaviour is considered abnormal if behaviour is statistically in frequent and only a small percentage of people display the behaviour
16
Q
definition of abnormality : Statistical infrequency NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
A
- doctors use normal distributions to determine whether a treat is statistically infrequent.
- when behaviour/trait is shared by 5% or less of population= abnormality
17
Q
definition of abnormality : Statistical infrequency STRENGTHS (2)
A
+ more objective, relies less on doctors subjective interpretation of patient, decreases personal bias
+ practical, quick, easy way of diagnosing ppl used to measure normal development in children has positive implications, making sure children are developing properly e.g intelligence can be measured and compared to the average of their peers –> allows early interventions to take place
18
Q
definition of abnormality : Statistical infrequency WEAKNESSES (2)
A
- some mental disorders aren’t statistically infrequent e.g. Depression affects around 280 million ppl across the world, high prevalence rate of depression means that it is not statistically deviant, not a fully valid measure of abnormality
- doesn’t consider desirability of behaviour E.G high IQ is infrequent+ is not undesirable therefore limits usefulness
19
Q
What are phobias
A
An irrational fear of an object or a situation, characterised by excessive fear and anxiety
20
Q
What are the 3 types of phobias +definition
A
- Social phobia = fear of being in social situations
- Agoraphobia = fear of being in a situation where escape is difficult (trapped)
- Specific phobia = fear of a specific object/animal
21
Q
Give 2 emotional, cognitive and behavioural symptoms of phobias
A
Emotional = persistent fear/anxiety of a specific stimulus, fear is disproportionate to the actual danger posed
Cognitive = Irrational beliefs about feared stimulus, Selective attention, becoming fixated on phobic stimulus, unable to draw attention away from it
Behavioural = Avoidance of feared stimulus, Panic (high stress+ anxiety) e.g. ‘freezing’ on the spot, crying, screaming, running away, fainting
22
Q
two process model ~ Acquisition of phobias
A
Through classical conditioning, develop association between neutral and unpleasant unconditioned stimulus, neutral stimulus becomes a condition stimulus person develops a conditioned response to stimulus
UCS being bitten causes UCR of anxiety. Originally NS the dog wouldn’t have caused a response. But when the NS is associated with the UCS (being bitten) this leads UCR (anxiety). So now the NS has become a conditioned stimulus (CS) and creates a conditioned response (CR) of anxiety.
23
Q
two process model ~ Maintenance of phobias
A
through operant conditioning (negative reinforcement), negative reinforcement is when an individual produces behaviour that avoids something unpleasant. When someone avoids a phobic stimulus (eg. a dog park) they escape the anxiety they that would have experiences (fear of seeing dogs). The relief felt from avoiding dogs negatively reinforces the phobia and ensures it is maintained rather than confronted.
24
Q
What does the two process model assume
A
assumes that behaviour is learned through experience via environmental stimuli
maintained through = OPERANT
learnt through = CLASSICAL
25
SUPPORT FOR 2 PROCESS MODEL Little Albert case study : method
~ presented little Albert with a white rat, had no response to it rat= NS
~ every time little Albert went to reach for the rat, researcher made a very loud noise making him cry (The noise (UCS) created a fear response (UCR) in Albert)
~ through repeated experience he learnt to associate the white rat with a scary loud noise, whenever Albert saw the white rat, he cried (Albert started to display fear when he saw the rat (NS) without the noise (UCS) The rat became the CS producing the CR of fear
supports human choir phobia through classical conditioning
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SUPPORT FOR 2 PROCESS MODEL therapy
~ useful application to treating phobias
~ resulting in the development of therapies such as systematic desensitisation which work to reverse this process to successfully treat phobias
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Weakness of the 2 process model (EVOLUTIONARY)
Some phobias aren't caused by traumatic events
- Can't explain why people develop phobias of spiders/snakes but not cars (which cause people more injuries than spiders)
- argued that humans are genetically programmed to rapidly learn an association between past life-threatening stimuli e.g snakes.
- would've helped survival in evolutionary past if we quickly learn a fear for them
- 'biological preparedness' can explain why we are less likely to develop a phobia of modern dangers like cars compared to spiders
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Weakness of the 2 process model (GENETIC/BIOLOGICAL)
The TPM cannot explain why some have continuous aversive experiences and do not develop a phobia, not everyone who experiences trauma will go on to develop a phobia
- research has found that not everyone who was bitten by dogs developed a phobia of them
- explained by the diathesis-stress model, proposes need to inherit a genetic vulnerability for the disorder+ have it triggered by a life event in order for phobia to develop
- DiNardo et al (1988) reported that 56% of dog phobics had an unpleasant encounter and 50% of normal controls also had an experience but did not develop a phobia
- shows the behavioural approach to phobias is a limited explanation to how they are developed and more research is needed for full explanation
29
2 treatments for phobias
1. Flooding
2. Systematic desensitisation
30
What is flooding + how does it work
*Immediate exposure to their worst fear/phobia, remaining with it until anxiety wears off completely, may happen in one session lasting hours.
* Prevents patient from avoiding feared stimulus
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Strengths of Flooding (2)
+ effective, quick, cost-effective nature of the therapy means that it has beneficial economic implication as fewer sessions required
+ Kaplan et al -> study support, 65% patients showed no symptoms of a specific phobia 4 yrs after flooding session
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Weaknesses of flooding (2)
- Traumatic +unpleasant, unethical although consent is gained can cause distress, high attrition rate (high drop out rate) which reduces the overall effectiveness for therapy (not suitable for children/the elderly/people with heart problems)
- doesnt always work, less effective with more complex phobias (social phobias) as they involve a variety of different interpersonal interactions dependent on the occasion instead can strengthen patients association between CS and CR making persons phobia even worse
33
What is systematic desensitisation
~ takes weeks/months as its a gradual, stage-based process, putting the patient in charge of their own progress
~ Works along principles of classical conditioning:
gradually exposing the phobic person to the phobic stimulus as process of 'unlearning' happens - they are conditioned to view the stimulus without fear
34
How does systematic desensitisation work (3 stages)
1. FEAR/ANXIETY HIERARCHY, rank feared stimulus from least to most feared
2. RELAXATION techniques (breathing exercises, mental imagery) are taught to manage anxiety with feared stimulus
3. EXPOSURE to feared stimulus gradually in stages (real or imagined), remaining relaxed at each stage
35
Strengths of systematic desensitisation (2)
+ ethical -> unlike flooding, exposes patient to feared stimulus gradually causing less destress
+ use systematic desensitisation on 20 patients who has blood/specific entry phobia, found 90% of patients treated with systematic desensitisation had a complete recovery after four years effective
36
Weaknesses of systematic desensitisation (2)
- limited usefulness -> doesn't treat cause of phobia, only the behaviour it results in phobia may return or another phobia may replace the original phobia
- Less effective at treating social + agoraphobias where mental processes are involved, cognitive factors are important
37
Give 3 emotional, 2 cognitive and 5 behavioural symptoms of Depression
Emotional = Low mood, Loss of pleasure, anger, sadness
Cognitive = difficulty concentrating, irrational negative belief
Behavioural = change in appetite, change in sleep pattern, social withdrawl, aggression, sh
38
in order to be diagnosed with major depression
* minimum 5 symptoms of depression
* at least 1 emotional symptom
* 2 weeks of experiencing symptoms
39
what is manic depression
(bpd) person cycles between depressive and manic episodes
Depressive episode = experience a period of low mood lasts for at least 1 week
Manic episode = experience a period of high mood for at least 1 week
40
state the 2 cognitive models of depression
1. Ellis' ABC model
2. Becks negative triad
41
cognitive model of depression: Ellis' ABC model outline
Depression is caused by irrational negative beliefs which occur from a negative activating event
A -> Activating event
B -> Belief (Rational/Irrational)
C -> consequence (healthy or unhealthy=depression)
42
cognitive model of depression: Becks negative triad 3 components
- Irrational negative belief of self
- Irrational negative belief of world
- Irrational negative belief of future
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outline Becks negative self schema
Irrational negative beliefs are caused by a person having a negative schema, comes from experiences in childhood/past experiences.
If new info supports + strengthens schema and irrational negative belief
if new negative info matches expectations from their negative schema this info is assimilated into their schema
44
only pay attention to (3 conditions) leads to what cognitive biases
only pay attention to negative info = negative cognitive bias
positive info = positive cognitive bias
both positive and negative info = bias
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outline Becks faulty thinking
- idea that depressed people are prone to misinterpreting info from events around them which leads to low mood
- overgeneralisation: see a single negative event as a never ending pattern
- catastrophising: when event are exaggerated and perceived as disasters
- personalisation: blaming yourself for something when the responsibility is not always yours
- seeking out the negative: only taking notice of negative or bad things that have happened and ignoring other positive things
46
support for cognitive approach to depression (Koster)
Koster
IV = Whether pps had major depression or not
DV = Reaction time to press a button
~ on every trial before the square appeared (positive, neutral, negative) word flashed up on the screen.
~ Participants were asked to press a button as fast as they could indicate where a square appeared on the screen
~ Found: presented with negative word pps with major depression took longer than the controls to indicate where the square appeared
presented with neutral/positive word, participants with major depression didn't take any longer than control group to indicate where the squares appeared.
-> Study supports the participants with major depression have a negative cognitive bias
47
Weakness of Becks negative (nature)
Beck’s theory does not consider the influence of biological factors in depression, research indicates genetics + neurotransmitters (particularly serotonin) play a key role in development of depression, Beck's theory does not take a fully holistic approach to explaining depression, viewing it as cognitive only
48
2 strengths of Ellis's ABC model
+ Ellis developed Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT, a form of CBT) which has been successful in treating depression and changing irrational thought patterns
This means that the therapy, based on cognitive theories, has good application
+ ABC model assigns responsibility for the individual to manage their thoughts, allowing some degree of control as to how to manage the consequences of activating events and beliefs, theory takes an idiographic approach= useful in the study of mental illnesses as no two experiences of depression are identical
49
support for cognitive approach to depression (irl treatments)
cog exp has lead to irl treatments
E: led to successful treatment called CBT: it identifies faulty thinking and irrational beliefs by challenging them and successfully treating them
E: CBT challenges these thoughts and successfully reduces symptoms therefore it can be assumed that those thoughts are responsible for depression
L: however this is a treatment fallacy + just because it works as a treatment doesn't mean the explanation is correct
50
What is CBT
Cognitive behaviour therapy = most commonly used psychological treatment for depression
Cognitive restructuring/reframing: turning negative thoughts into positive thoughts
Guided discovery: challenging negative thoughts and irrational beliefs
Keeping a journal: recording thoughts, feelings and actions between sessions
Activity scheduling and behaviour activation: acting on decisions+ avoiding procrastination
Relaxation and stress reduction techniques: exercises e.g muscle relaxation, deep breathing, visualisation
Role-playing: working through diff scenarios which patient finds difficult/challenging
51
How long does CBT take and what is it focused on
~ Course of CBT takes between 5-20 sessions, client and therapist meeting every week/fortnight, each session lasting between 30-60 minutes
~ focused on the 'here-and-now' rather than past
52
What are the 4 stages involved in CBT (Beck)
1. Therapist encourages patient to identify their irrational negative beliefs.
2. Therapist challenges each irrational negative belief.
3. Patient is set homework together evidence to test their hypothesis.
4. Therapist and a patient evaluate evidence together in following sessions.
53
What is Ellis' REBT (Rational Emotive Behaviour)
* extends ABC model to ABCDE (D is for Dispute and E is for Effect)
* REBT aims to help client to identify and challenge/dispute irrational thoughts, e.g.:
1. identify examples given by the patient and use utopianism to challenge these beliefs
2. The REBT therapist presents robust arguments to dispute this idea
3. Therapist's role is to break the link between negative life effects and depression by changing the client's irrational belief
54
Techniques used in REBT (3)
Empirical disputing
- questions patients to make them aware that there isn't any real evidence to support the irrational
Logical disputing
- questions patients to emphasise that their negative thinking does not follow on logically from the information around them + facts
Pragmatic disputing
- questions patients to emphasise their negative thinking is not useful to them.
therapist uses these techniques with patient, with the view that they will eventually learn to be able to dispute and challenge their own negative thoughts and irrational beliefs.
55
Weaknesses of CBT (individual diff, severity)
individual differences, may not be suitable for all
E: depression could be so sever that patients can't motivate themselves to engage with the hard work of CBT. although it is autonomous+ active, they may not even pay attention in sessions because condition is so severe.
L: best way for CBT to be used effectively is to combine CBT and drugs in an interactionist way - first use the drugs to allow patients to be alert and more motivated to participate in the therapy, then use the good effects of CBT to encourage patients to challenge their negative beliefs by themselves.
56
Strength of CBT (Culjpers et al)
Culjpers et al
~ conducted a review looking at all the studies conducted in the US which had investigated effectiveness of CBT as a treatment for depression. All studies that was reviewed had 2 groups of depressed participants- group1 (given CBT as a treatment)(the experimental group) group2 who weren’t given any form of treatment (the control group).
~ found pps treated with CBT experienced a significant improvement in their symptoms, compared to control group, concluded that CBT is more effective than no treatment for adults with major depression.
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Weakness of CBT ( drug)
- May not be as effective as other treatments e.g. antidepressants like SSRIs
treatments aimed at biological causes of major depression may be more effective
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Weakness of CBT (talking)
CBT, as with all 'talking therapies', doesn't work well for ppl who don't like to express themselves freely or who lack the verbal or intellectual skills to do so
~ therapy lacks an idiographic dimension as it ignores the experience of the individual to some extent
e.g. Cuijpers et al review of CBT found that effectiveness of CBT varies from individual to individual
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What is OCD
OCD = anxiety disorder which is characterised by persistent, intrusive thoughts and repetitive behaviours
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Give 3 emotional, 2 cognitive and 2 behavioural symptoms of OCD
emotional = guilt + anxiety, fear, overwhelmed
cognitive = obsessive thoughts (affect 90% of people with the illness), Catastrophising around their OCD,
behavioural = compulsions, (to reduce anxiety), repetitive
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define obsessions and compulsions
OBSESSIONS = disturbing, recurrent thoughts -> lead to anxiety guilt
COMPULSIONS = repetitive actions ppl feel urge to do in order to reduce feelings of guilt/anxiety disturbing
62
Define neural explanations of OCD
assumes that neurotransmitters play a role in the development of the disorder
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What 2 nuerotransmitters are involved with OCD
Dopamine + Serotonin
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neural explanations of OCD ~ Abnormal levels of neurotransmitters
- dopamine levels are abnormally high in OCD sufferers - high levels have been linked to compulsions due to reward-seeking may, dopamine reinforces compulsive behaviours, necessary to reduce obsessive thoughts
- serotonin levels are abnormally low in OCD - antidepressant drugs which increase serotonin activity have been shown to reduce OCD symptoms
65
what 2 brain structures are involved with OCD
Orbitofrontal cortex + Basal ganglia
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neural explanations of OCD ~ Abnormal brain circuits and structure OFC
Orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) = detects + decides how to deal with worrying stimuli in our environment -> Once action has been selected, Orbitofrontal cortex sends signals to parts of brain that control movement.
OCD sufferers
- OFC sends signals to the thalamus about things that are worrying
- caudate nucleus may be damaged/not functioning correctly so the minor 'worry' signals are not suppressed
- this means the thalamus is continually alerted on the worry and the signals are sent back to the OFC, creating a 'worry circuit'
--> 'caudate nucleus-thalamus loop'
67
neural explanations of OCD ~ Abnormal brain circuits and structure (Basal ganglia)
Basal ganglia = Monitors outcome of our actions, basal ganglia sends inhibitory signals back Orbitofrontal cortex -> once signals have been sent to basal ganglia, the basal ganglia sends signals back to Orbitofrontal cortex
OCD sufferers
- hyperactivity has been linked to repetitive motor movements which may explain compulsion i.e repetitive behaviours
- supports people with head injuries - some have damaged basal ganglia + show increased rates of OCD
68
Define Biological explanations of OCD
*genetic explanation of OCD assumes that mental illnesses are heritable (generationally transmitted)
*risk of developing OCD is higher for first-degree relatives (siblings or children)
*Researchers have identified candidate genes as genes that code for vulnerability to OCD
* OCD is polygenic, it is not caused by one single gene but by a combination of genetic variations that together cause significantly increased vulnerability
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What 2 genes result in OCD
COMT + SERT
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Biological explanations of OCD COMT gene
COMT gene
- regulates/balances production of dopamine levels (neurotransmitter)
- OCD patients are more likely to have an allele of the COMT gene that produces lower activity of the COMT and higher levels of dopamine
- COMT plays an important role in de-activating dopamine, Irregular dopamine levels are implicated in OCD
- COMT gene variation may contribute to OCD as it may help to control compulsive behaviours
71
Biological explanations of OCD SERT gene
SERT gene
- affects transportation of serotonin
- a mutation of the SERT gene linked to OCD leads to lower levels of serotonin, serotonin balances mood which in turn may help to regulate obsessive thoughts
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Strengths of Biological explanations of OCD 2
+ Nestadt et al. (2010) found that 68% of (MZ; identical) twins both had OCD compared to 31% of (DZ; non-identical) twins
-> increases validity of theory, OCD can be explained by genetics
+ Twin studies are useful to investigate heritability of OCD, each twin acts as the control for the other twin which means that individual differences are accounted for to some extent
-> Twin studies tend to use large samples which results in robust quantitative data.
research has good reliability
73
Weaknesses of Biological explanations of OCD 2
- Biological reductionism -> Ignores role of environment in development of mental illness, environment contributes to OCD, genetic explanation lacks fully explanatory power
- Pato et al. (2001) noted that although there does seem to be a genetic explanation for OCD, there is insufficient understanding of the actual genetic mechanisms surrounding OCD, lack validity
74
Strengths of Neural explanations of OCD 2
+ Antidepressants e.g SSRIs, used to regulate serotonin levels, have been effective in reducing OCD symptoms, supports idea that irregular levels of serotonin are linked to the development of OCD, increases validity of theory
+ Research into neural explanations of OCD tends to use objective, clinical methods such as fMRI scanning which is highly reliable
75
Weaknesses of Neural explanations of OCD 2
- Not all OCD sufferers respond positively to SSRIs, reduces external validity of theory, If SSRIs cannot treat all individuals with OCD, then the cause may not be solely neural
- Sophisticated apparatus (such as fMRIs) are used to measure brain activity this in itself is not 100% evidence of neurotransmission, brain activity measured in an fMRI may be the result of other factors e.g. excitement/nervousness at being in the scanning machine
-> It is not yet possible to track and measure 'live' neurotransmission, only possible to claim that OCD have neurological correlates, no absolute 'proof' that irregular serotonin+ dopamine levels cause OCD
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What 2 drug therapies can treat OCD
1. Anti - derpressant drugs
2. Anti - anxiety drugs
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how does anti anxiety drug treat OCD
benzodiazepines (BZs)= anti-anxiety drugs designed to induce a feeling of calm (well-known brand= Valium), encourage the transmission of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
* GABA= neurotransmitter which works to control neuron hyperactivity associated with fear, anxiety and stress
* BZs 'quieten' the brain by reducing neurotransmission, reducing obsessive thoughts in someone with OCD
78
how does anti depressant drug treat OCD
= tackle low levels of serotonin are known as Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs), selective as they mainly affect serotonin, not other neurotransmitters e.g dopamine
~ SSRIs block the re-uptake of serotonin, more serotonin is available at synapses in the orbitofrontal cortex. Leads to a greater likelihood of serotonin binding to post-synaptic receptors, more inhibition of neural activity in orbitofrontal cortex. Reducing hyperactivity of neurons in this brain region, improving transmission of messages between neurons
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How does reuptake work
~ Reuptake occurs when molecules of serotonin do not cross the synaptic cleft i.e. they have not been transmitted to the postsynaptic neuron
~ The ‘spare’ molecules of serotonin are then taken back up into the presynaptic neuron
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Strengths of drug therapy for OCD (2)
+ Drug therapy is cost-effective+ widely available+quick
Drugs are cheaper, more readily available than other psychological treatments such as CBT, impact on economy is lessened, good in terms of health service budgets (reduce NHS burden), more people are treated, return to work quicker which positively impacts the economy
+ There is good research support for the efficacy of drug therapy
-> Soomro et al. reviewed 17 studies, investigating effectiveness of SSRIs compared to placebos.
~ Researchers found that 70% of adults who took SSRIs experienced an improvement in reducing their symptoms.
~ all 17 studies showed significantly better results for SSRI's than placebos up to 3 months after treatment
~ effectiveness is supported by studies.
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Weaknesses of drug therapy for OCD (2)
- Drug therapies can come with potentially serious side effects
*SSRIs may cause nausea, headaches, insomnia blurred vision, irritability, indigestion
*BZs may cause drowsiness, light-headedness, confusion, dizziness + slurred speech limits the usefulness of these drugs in treatment of OCD
- Evidence is unreliable
Positive results of drug trials are more likely to be published than trials in which the outcome of the drug was less successful (publication bias)
Goldacre found that drug companies selectively publish positive outcomes for the drugs their sponsors are selling
Unethical + lessens the validity of drug therapies, could cause misdiagnosis and prescribe the wrong kind of drug for that person - dangerous and could lead to condition worsening
