Memory Flashcards

(117 cards)

1
Q

Who was the multi-store model of memory (MSM) proposed by + draw it

A

Atkinson & Shiffrin

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2
Q

What are the 3 stores of the MSM

A
  1. Sensory registor
  2. STM
  3. LTM
    ~ distinct, separate, unitary stores
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3
Q

What is the sensory register

A

where all sensory information from environment passes into or is held, body detects:
Eyes for sight -> Iconic
Ears for sounds -> Echoic
Nose for smell -> Olfactory
Tongue for taste -> Gustatory
Skin for touch/pressure -> Haptic

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4
Q

Define capacity

A

how much information can be held in a memory store

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5
Q

Define duration

A

a measure of how long memory lasts before it is no longer available

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6
Q

Define coding

A

the format in which information is stored in the various memory stores

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7
Q

Define chunking

A

grouping info into smaller units/chunks to aid recall + increase capacity of STM

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8
Q

What is the capacity, coding and duration for Sensory Memory

A

CAPACITY = very high
CODING = modality specific
DURATION = >millisecond

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9
Q

What is the capacity, coding and duration for STM

A

CAPACITY = 7 +/- 2
CODING = Acoustic (sound of word)
DURATION = 18-30 sec

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10
Q

What is the capacity, coding and duration for LTM

A

CAPACITY = Semantic (meaning of word)
CODING = unlimited ∞
DURATION = unlimited ∞

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11
Q

name the experimenters that found duration for STM + LTM

A

STM = Peterson + Peterson
LTM = Bahrick et al

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12
Q

STM experiment for duration (SAMPLE + PROCEDURE)

A

Peterson + Peterson
* Lab exp. * 24 pps (psych undergrad students)
~ presented 1 at a time, trigrams recalled after intervals of 3,6,9,12,15,18 secs (no 2 successive trigrams contained any of the same letters)
~ After hearing trigram, pps was asked to count backwards in 3’s outloud from a specified digit number until they saw a red light, then recalled trigram
~ aimed to prevent rehearsal

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13
Q

STM experiment for duration (RESULTS)

A

~ Longer the interval, the less they were able to recall trigrams accurately
3 seconds = 80%
6 seconds = 50%
18 seconds = 10%
… of trigrams recalled correctly

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14
Q

Weakness of STM duration Peterson exp (3)

A
  • sample too small, culture, age bias
  • sample bias as students where psych undergrads so demand charscteristics
  • artificial task, lacks mundane realism, ecological valitdity
    HOWEVER: we do remember irrelevant meaningless stimuli e.g. phone number
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15
Q

LTM experiment for duration (PROCEDURE)

A

Bahrick
* studied 392 pps from Ohio US. * 17-74 age
1. Photo recognition -> 50 photos some from pps school yr book
2. Free recall -> pps recalled names of their graduating yr book

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16
Q

LTM experiment for duration (RESULTS)

A

tested within 15 years after graduation
- photo recognition: 90% accurate
- free recall: 60%

48 years after graduation
- photo recognition: 70%
- free recall: 30%

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17
Q

Coding of memory experiment (Procedure)

A

Baddely (Lab study)
Gave pps diff lists of words to 4 groups to remember
- Group 1: acoustically similar list = cab, can, cat
- Group 2: acoustically dissimilar = pit, cow, tie
- Group 3: semantically similar = huge, vast, big
- Group 4: semantically dissimilar = good, hot, large

recall immediately after, and again after 20 minutes.

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18
Q

Coding of memory experiment (Results)

A

immediate recall - difficulty remembering/ poor recall with acoustically similar words, sounded similar so confused/distorted in the STM
therefore STM is coded acoustically

delayed recall - difficulty remembering semantically similar words, have similar meaning were competing for space in LT, became distorted
therefore LTM is coded semantically

information that uses the same coding method as a memory store becomes muddled in our brain!

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19
Q

STM capacity experiment (Procedure)

A

Jacobs *digit span test
~ pps given sequence of numbers/letters, asked to recall immediately, additional digit added onto each sequence
e.g. 0879, 79589, 673543,…

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20
Q

STM capacity experiment (Results)

A
  • average span for digits: 9.3 items
  • average span for letters: 7.3 items
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21
Q

What is Millers magic number

A

7 +/- 2
STM holds between 5-9 pieces of info

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22
Q

Evaluation of research into STM (3)

A
  • lack mundane realism, used artificial stimuli e.g. Baddely -> pps given random world list, processing memory is more complex cant generalise findings
  • lacks validity digit span test conducted many yrs ago before there were robust experimental procedures, so not all variables properly controlled
  • Confounding variables, inteligance, personality, tiredness level can effect results
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23
Q

limitation of Miller’s research

A
  • overestimated capacity of STM:
    Cowan -> reviewed other research + concluded that capacity of STM was only 4 chunks, contradictory as lower end of Millers estimate (5 items) more appropriate than 7 items
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24
Q

Strength of Bahrick

A

+ high external validity, studied real life meaningful memories in natural environment (no researcher controls/manipulation) ~ conclusions are valid + strengthens acceptance of findings

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25
what is maintenance rehearsal
repeat material to ourselves over +over again
26
What is the serial position effect
When asking ppl to remember a list of words which is greater than capacity of STM, they have a tendency to remember words from beginning + end of list
27
what is the primacy and recency effect
PRIMACY = tendency for ppl to remember first 5 or so words from beginning of list RECENCY = tendency for ppl to remember last 5 or so words from end of list
28
study support for MSM (Procedure +findings +Why)
Glanzer + Cunitzt ~ showed pps list of 20 words, presented 1 at a time + asked them to recall 1. Primary effect occurs because first words are best rehearsed +transferred to LTM 2. Recency effect occurs as they are last words to be presented + fresh in STM 3. Words in middle aren't recalled due to displacement
29
Clive Wearing (CW) ~ CASE STUDY Outline + explain why is supports +contradicts MSM
*Rehearsal mechanism that transfers info from STM -> LTM is not working with CW * Suggest STM+ LTM are 2 separate stores, there is a process that transfers info from one store to another * Assumptions are in line with MSM. (support) * However, CW has problems with his LTM, but has retained procedural memory/ muscle memory (piano playing) * cannot retain any memories of own lifetime but can still play piano with great skill + recognises/ remembers his wife. * Evidence undermines MSM, appears that there must be more than one type/store of LTM not just one unitary store
30
Research to support MSM ~ Brain scans
+ Beardsley found that pre frontal cortex is active during STM task but not LTM task + Squire found hippocampus is active during LTM task but not STM task ~ evidence for existence of different memory stores
31
Strength of using Brain scans for evaluating MSM
+ scans are objective, results can't be faked, not down to researcher interpretation -> scans are highly scientific, robust measure
32
Case of HM
- HM had epilepsy, was prone to seizures, underwent brain surgery had his hippocampus removed - after surgery, this seizures stopped and he was perfectly normal except his LTM was damaged e.g. he could not form new memories or remember if he ate something or not. - had difficulty performing tests to do with LTM but could hold information for up to 30s. - he could remember things if he maintained verbal rehearsal and could form sentences thus his STM remained intact. - semantic memory and procedural memory were not affected, episodic was
33
Case of KF
- amnesic patient suffered brain damage from motorcycle accident - LTM remained fairly intact but STM was damaged - digit span of 2 items - digit span when presented visually it was better (basically normal) but worse when acoustically given - shows there are two types of STM; one to process visual material and one to process auditory material Shallice and Warrington (1974) - KF STM for non-verbal sounds eg noises was intact therefore this showed there are three types of STM - one for verbal and one for non-verbal sounds - spatial memory; it appears that in other studies of amnesic patients that these forms of memory may be separate - this there are three types of STM; verbal, visual, spatial
34
How does HM support and contradict MSM
+ There are two separate stores for STM and LTM as the coding for these two are different - acoustic vs semantic --> increases external validity of MSM - The model is too simplistic and doesnt go into detail of each store as, semantic memory and procedural memory were not affected, episodic was suggesting there is more to it research contradicts idea that there is only one LTM store.
35
How does KF contradict MSM
research contradicts idea that there is only one STM store. E: after a motorbike accident causing brain damage to KF, memory was affected. visual presentation of digits = recall is fine, but verbal presentation = couldn't recall E: weakness - suggests there are multiple stores of STM (one to process visual + one for verbal). suggests MSM is not a good complete explanation of memory - lacks ex. val L: case study - unique to individual, unclear what KF's memory was like before the accident, therefore cannot generalise findings to everyone else.
36
What are the 3 components/stores of LTM + who came up with it
1. Episodic memory 2. Semantic memory 3. Procedural memory Mr Tulving
37
what are the 2 categories of LTM
EXPLICIT/ DECLARATIVE = recall of previously learn info that requires conscious effort to receive IMPLICIT/ PROCEDURAL = memories that are unconscious and effortlessly recalled
38
define Episodic memory
= ability to recall events/episodes from lives "knowing when" * time stamped * Personal/specific detail * declarative/explicit (need to make conscious effort to remember) * not taught
39
define Semantic memory
= contains knowledge of world (facts) "knowing that" * not time stamped * meaning of word is important, not as personal as episodic as its info everyone knows * declarative/explicit * taught
40
define Procedural memory
= memory for actions/skills (procedures) "knowing how" * not time stamped * learning skills take conscious effort but once learnt little to no conscious effort * procedural/implicit * taught
41
What are neuro-imaging brain scans
= allows researchers to see which areas of brain are active when carrying out a certain mental process ~ objective + specific, no subjective bias ~ results cannot be faked, scientific methods have been used to gather data
42
Evaluation of LTM (HM support)
* HM didn't have any memory for specific events that had occurred in his life but semantic memory was still intact. Can't recall stroking a dog 30 minutes before or owning a dog in the past yet he could understand the concept of what a dog is. * HM still had procedure memory E.G. Able to tie his shoelaces/draw a star. -> Shows clear evidence of different types of LTM.
43
Evaluation of LTM (strength from nuero-imaging evidence
P: research support from brain scan studies ~ participants performed various memory tasks whilst having a PET scan E: Tulving et al (1994) found episodic and semantic were both recalled from prefrontal cortex - left = semantic right = episodic E: supports view that there is physical reality to diff. types of LTM within the brain, indicating they are separate L: external val and reliability of different types of LTM
44
Which parts of the brain are each of the LTM stores associated with
PROCEDURAL= cerebellum (control of motor skills) SEMANTIC = temporal lobe EPISODIC = hippocampus (temporal lobe) + frontal lobe
45
Evaluation of LTM (weakness- case study)
- issue with generalisability, both HM +CW suffered from brain injuries that led to amnesia, experiences are unique, lack external validity + cant be generalised to wider population
46
who came up with the Working Memory Model (WMM) + why + DRAW IT
Baddely + Hitch as MSM was criticised for being far too simplistic so they proposed the WMM, explains how STM is organised into subsystems
47
What is Dual Task performance
~ struggle doing two tasks that involve the same processing system, due to limited capacity in that store. ~ Whereas if you carry out 2 tasks simultaneously involving diffprocessing systems, you can do both.
48
what is the central executive (CE)
"the boss" ~ limited capacity and cannot store information ~ makes decisions + allocates slave systems to tasks
49
Features of the Phonological Loop
~ coordinating auditory information (coding is acoustic) ~ preserves order in which info arrives ~ divided into: 1. phonological store: stores spoken words (the inner ear) 2. articulatory process: stores written words (the inner voice) Words are repeated on a loop as part of maintenance rehearsal to keep in WMM - duration 2sec (very limited)
50
Features of the Visuo- Spatial Sketchpad
~ stores visual +spatial info (the inner eye) ~ limited capacity (3-4 objects) ~ codes visually (iconic), temporary store ~ broken into 1. Visual cache: stores visual data what they look like e.g. colour, shape 2. inner scribe: stores the arrangement of objects within the visual field of view
51
Features of the Episodic Buffer
~ Capacity is limited to 4 chunks/info ~ temporary store, integrates visual, spatial, verbal info from other slave systems ~ records information as episodes, so that it is time-sequenced ~ provides a bridge between working memory and LTM
52
Evaluation of WMM (Research support - dual task)
E: Baddeley and Hitch - pps struggled to do two visual tasks simultaneously but were able to do a visual and a verbal task E: WMM argues that two visual tasks compete for the same limited resources in the VSS but a visual and verbal task have different components thus performance would be better --> demonstrates WMM is a good explanation as it shows there are separate components for different tasks that have different capacities. L: incr. ex. val, suggests its a good explanation in how memory is used for different tasks
53
Evaluation of WMM (support KF)
P: there is research to support E: after motorbike accident, KF's brain was damaged and it affected his STM. when digits presented visually, could remember, however when presented verbally, couldn't remember. E: shows there are different stores for STM - 1 for visual processing + 1 for acoustic processing. according to WMM, KF's phonological loop was damaged but his visuo-spatial sketchpad remained intact. therefore incr ext val of the WMM as an explanation for memory L: however this is a case study - results are unique to individual therefore cannot be generalised to everyone's memory.
54
Evaluation of WMM (2 weaknesses)
- lack of detail on the role of the CE, due to it being very difficult to operationalise and measure, Baddley said it's the most important but least explained component. There may be more than one central component to the CE but to date, this has not been established with empirical evidence - The dual-task performance effect relies on highly controlled lab conditions using tasks that are unrelated to real-life scenarios This lack of 'realness' lowers the ecological validity of research in this field
55
What are the 2 explanations for forgetting
1. Interference theory 2. Retrieval failure
56
define interference theory as an explanation of forgetting
~ Forgetting occurs because 1 memory blocks another causing 1 or both memories to be distorted. ~ Usually occurs when memories are similar or learned in quick succession.
57
What is Proactive interference and Retroactive interference
Proactive interference = when an older memory interferes with a newer memory, e.g. names of previous neighbours are remembered instead of names of new neighbours who just moved in Retroactive interference = new memory prevents recall of an older memory, e.g. names of new neighbours who just moved in are remembered but names of previous neighbours are forgotten
58
Interference -> study support (procedure)
McGeoch and McDonald * studied retroactive interference * Lab based study * pps learned list of 10 words until they could recall with 100% accuracy * Then learned new list of words Group 1: Synonyms Group 2: Antonyms Group 3: Unrelated words Group 4: Constant syllables Group 5: numbers
59
Interference -> study support (Findings)
~ pps recall of OG words was tested, was impaired/affected by new learning. ~ Pps in group 2 (synonyms) had poorest recall. ~ Interference is strongest when materials are similar.
60
Evaluation of interference
can't be applied to everyone E: Kane & Engle (2000) demonstrated that individuals w/ greater WMM span were less susceptible to proactive interference. E: shows that some people are less affected by proactive interference than others, which this theory does not take into account. L: interference theory can't explain forgetting in everyone therefore decr. ex. val suggesting other explanations of forgetting may be better.
61
Evaluation of interference (lab)
- Much of the research used for studying interference is lab-based using artificial tasks (such as recalling word lists) which means the research has low ecological validity, lack mundane realism + lab experiments confirmed effects of both proactive + retroactive interference, findings have high validity, good control of extraneous variables + internal validity
62
Evaluation of interference (real-life situations )
+ (Baddeley & Hitch, 1977) Rugby players were asked to recall names of teams they had played against over one season experienced tractive interference. Players who had played in the most games had the worst recall researchers found, more recent games had interfered with recall of the earlier games. ~ The use of real players recalling real games gives this study good ecological validity, credibility to explaining everyday memory + Interference may explain why it is often more difficult to learn a language (e.g. French) if a previous language has been learnt (e.g. Spanish) The above observation gives the theory good external validity
63
define retrieval failure as an explanation of forgetting
When we don't have the necessary queues to access memory as it is available but not necessarily accessible due to lack of queues
64
what is a cue and define both types of cues
Trigger for info that allows us to retrieve/access a memory. 1. External cues = environmental/context. 2. Internal queue = state/mood.
65
What is the Encoding Specificity Principle
ESP -> people forget due to insufficient cues from environment, memory is most effective if information that was present at encoding is also available at the time of retrieval - the close the cue is to the original, the more useful it will be. context-dependent forgetting = external state-depended forgetting = internal
66
Encoding Specificity principle (study support)
Tulving proposed that if a cue is to be helpful, in remembering info, then it must be: present during encoding (learning) present during retrieval (recalling info) If the cue does not meet the criteria then the information may be forgotten Many cues have a meaningful link to the information forming the memory
67
What is context dependent forgetting
occurs when recall depends on an external cue e.g. environment/surroundings
68
Research that investigated Context-dependent forgetting and State-dependent forgetting
Context-dependent forgetting = Godden & Baddeley State-dependent forgetting = Carter and Cassaday + Goodwin et al (2 seprate studies)
69
Context-dependent forgetting -> Godden & Baddeley (Procedure)
= investigated the effect of contextual/environmental cues on deep-sea divers * 18 pps (13 males and 5 females) from university diving club * There were four conditions to the independent variable: 1) learning words on land/recalling on land 2) learning words on land/recalling underwater 3) learning underwater/recalling underwater 4) learning underwater/recalling on land 36 words of 2 or 3 syllables
70
Context-dependent forgetting -> Godden & Baddeley (Found/conclusion)
~ context/environment acted as a cue to recall ~ pps recalled 40% more words accurately when learnt + recalled in same environment compared to diff environments
71
Define state dependant forgetting
recall depends on an internal cue, e.g. - feelings/emotions involved (feeling happy, sad, angry, distressed etc.) - physiological state of the person (feeling drunk, drugged, tired etc.) Mood/physiological state during recall is different from mood and when you were
72
State-dependent forgetting -> Carter and Cassaday (procedure)
* antihistamine drugs have a sedative effect making pps slightly drowsy creating an internal physiological state different from normal state of being awake and alert. * Pps had to learn list of words, then recall the info 1. Learn on drugs -> recall on it 2. Learn on drugs -> recall not on it 3. Learn not on drugs -> recall on it 4. Learn not on drugs -> recall not on it
73
State-dependent forgetting -> Carter and Cassaday (Findings)
recall of lists of words was higher when within the same state (i.e. learning word lists on antihistamine and recalling word lists on antihistamine)
74
State-dependent forgetting -> Goodwin et al (procedure)
* controlled lab study. *independant group design * volunteer * investigated effect of recall when pps were under the influence of alcohol or when sober: ~ 48 male medical students participated on day 1 (training session) + day 2 (testing) ~ Randomly assigned; group 1: (SS) sober Group 2: (AA) alcohol Group 3: (AS) intoxicated day1 + sober day 2 Group 4: (SA) sober day1 + intoxicated day 2 * intoxicated group had 111mg/100ml alcohol in blood * 4 tests -> avoidance task, verbal note learning task, word association test, picture recognition
75
State-dependent forgetting -> Goodwin et al (Findings)
- information learned when under the influence of alcohol was recalled better when the participant was under the influence of alcohol (i.e. in the same state = drunk!) - performance was worse when their states didn't match e.g learnt sober and recalled drunk
76
Evaluation of retrieval failure (support)
+ good real-world application to the theory, e.g. studying for exams should be conducted in the same room in which the exam is to take place to aid recall, good external validity + research to support e.g.Godden & Baddeley, Carter and Cassaday, Goodwin et al high reliability HOWEVER lacks mundane realism
77
Evaluation of retrieval failure
- Baddeley (1977) argued that the effect of context is not very strong in real-world situations, It would be difficult to find such extremely contrasting contexts as land and water (Godden and Baddeley) in real life This means that retrieval failure due to a lack of contextual cues may not be a good model to explain forgetting - Many of the studies involve learning lists of words which is an artificial task, meaning that studies lack ecological validity and real-world application
78
what are the 2 Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony
1. misleading information (leading questions, post event discussion) 2. Anxiety
79
what are leading questions
~ suggest a certain answer due to the way that they are worded/phrased ~ may result in response bias, eye witness doesn't answer the question accurately: they answer in the way that they think they should answer ~ a form of misleading information (post-event information) as they can prompt eye witness, to recall events incorrectly
80
2 explanations why leading questions affect EWT
1. Response Bias explanation 2. Substitution explanation
81
what is Response Bias explanation for misleading info in EWT
wording has no effect on memory but influences their answer e.g smashed encourages higher speed limit
82
what is Substitution explanation for misleading info in EWT
leading question changes a person's memory of an event by adding detail that was not present at the time of them witnessing the event
83
Misleading information - Loftus and Palmer (1974) (procedure)
- 45 students shown 7 films of different car traffic accidents - after each film, ppts were given a questionnaire 1. asked them to describe accident 2. asked a series of specific questions ~ critical question: "How fast were the cars going/travellinng before they... each other?" ~ verbs were: hit, contacted, smashed, collided, bumped ~ Each group had a different verb as part of their questionnaire, critical as it was a leading question
84
Misleading information - Loftus and Palmer (1974) (results)
verb = mean speed estimate (mph) smashed = 40.8 bumped = 38.1 hit = 34.0 contacted = 31.8 the leading question may bias a pps response or have altered informations before it is stored --> this was tested
85
Evaluation of leading questions Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony (strength)
+ real-world application with studies into the effect of leading questions as the findings can be applied to legal fields and the criminal justice system * importance to accuracy of EWT to ensure that innocent people aren't convicted of crimes due to poor recall of events from a witness * should be careful not to ask misleading questions and be mindful of the influence of post-event discussion when interviewing eyewitnesses + not rely on witnesses only, but accompany it with other evidence.
86
Evaluation of leading questions Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony (Weaknesses) 6
- Lab studies (Loftus & Palmer 1974) lack ecological validity they don't represent real-life situations: * Eyewitnesses to car accidents are likely to experience high levels of stress which does not happen with lab-based research * Participants in lab studies may not take the experiment seriously or give the same motivation if they were witnessing a real-life situation * Answers given by pps may be prone to demand characteristics * age, gender bias (not generalisable) - EWT research does not account fully for individual differences Some people are aware of and can avoid being affected by leading questions Some people may feel over-excited, nervous, fearful having witnessed a crime in which case it would be their emotional state rather than the use of leading questions that impaired their memory
87
What is post event discussion
When co-witnesses to a crime discuss events and their experiences after it has occurred e.g. discussion with other eyewitnesses, questioning by legal/crime teams and interviewers
88
which research supports post event discussions
Gabbert et al (2003)
89
Post-event discussion Affecting the Accuracy of EWT Gabbert et al (2003) (procedure)
pairs of pps (students and older adults) each watched a video of the same crime but filmed from different povs, each had a unique view of the event experimental group =Pairs able to discuss what they had witnessed before carrying out a recall test of the event seen in the video
90
Post-event discussion Affecting the Accuracy of EWT Gabbert et al (2003) (found)
~ A large proportion (71%) of eyewitnesses who had discussed the crime made mistakes when recalling the events ~ control group (didn't discuss) 0% mistakes in recall were made ~ can lead to inaccurate eyewitness testimony
91
evaluation of Post-event discussion Affecting the Accuracy of EWT 2+
+ Two different populations were investigated as part of the study by Gabbert et al., students and older adults, which gives the study high population validity This suggests that PED affects people in all populations in a similar way + research by Gabbert et al. was a lab study Lab studies are easy to replicate; high reliability to the findings of investigation however lack mundane realism, ecological validity, artificial conditions
92
evaluation of Post-event discussion Affecting the Accuracy of EWT 2-
- There is low ecological validity, pps of Gabbert et al. knew they were taking part in a study, likely to have paid close attention to details of the video clip, results do not reflect a real-life crime had it been witnessed - Gabbert et al. could not explain why the effects of PED occurred so the memory distortion could be due to: pressure to conform to other eyewitnesses poor memory, where people build new information into their memory of the event and are unable to distinguish between what they have seen and what they have heard
93
What is anxiety
= strong emotional +physical effects that brings on feelings of tension, worry and physical changes such as raised blood pressure * Stressful events such as witnessing a crime can trigger anxiety CAN HAVE +/- EFFECTS ON EWT RECALL
94
Which studies support negative anxiety effects and positive anxiety effects
NEGATIVE = Johnson and Scott + Loftus and Burns POSITIVE = Yuille & Cutshall + Christianson & Hubinette
95
what Negative effects does anxiety have on accurate recall (3)
~ Anxiety creates physiological effects on body which is under control of "autonomic nervous system". ~ Body moves from "resting state (parasympathetic) to "aroused state" (sympathetic) ~ increases heart rate, sweating, breathing. ~ Affects persons ability to pay attention to important cues in relation to their surrounding, cannot focus/concentrate due to being in a stressed state leads to poorer recall
96
weapon focus effect theory
the anxiety of seeing a weapon focuses all your attention on the weapon, meaning you won't be able to recall much else.
97
weapon focus effect (Johnson & Scott 1976) PROCEDURE ~ negative
Johnson and Scott (1976) * lab study ~ ppts deceived into thinking they were taking part in a lab study ~ sat in waiting room; heard argument in the next room The low-anxiety group = saw a man walk out with a pen and grease on his hands High-anxiety group = heard breaking of glass + saw a man walk out with a knife and blood on his hands ~ pps given a photo recognition task to identify the man
98
weapon focus effect (Johnson & Scott 1976) FINDINGS ~ negative
~ 49% of pps in low-anxiety group correctly identified the man ~ 33% accuracy in high-anxiety group
99
What is the Tunnel Theory of memory
a witness' attention narrows to focus on a weapon because it is a source of anxiety
100
how does Loftus and Burns support negative effect of anxiety
pps shown a violent version of a crime where boy is shot in fae, pps had significantly impaired recall for events running up to violent incident
101
what positive effects does anxiety have on accurate recall
~ stress of witnessing a crime/accident creates anxiety through physiological arousal in the body. triggers adrenaline ~ Fight or flight response increases heart rate/breathing/pupil dilation. ~ Increases alertness, improves memory due to higher awareness of cues + surrounding ~ humans pay more attention, have heightened vigilance to any external threats/ dangerous dangers. ~ Evolutionary mechanism that aids survival. It is adaptive for our memory to be better as it would have protected us from any dangerous/threats be more wary of our surroundings and people.
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Positive effects of anxiety on accuracy Yuille & Cutshall (1986) Procedure
~ Witnesses of a real-life crime shooting in Canada (shop owner shot a thief dead) were asked to take part in the study (13 witnesses agreed) ~ Pps were interviewed 4 to 5 months following the shooting; the interviews were compared to og police interviews ~ Accuracy was measured by the number of matching details in each interview ~ Pps were also asked to rate their stress levels at time of incident (using 7 point scale) + related psychological/emotional issues, such as insomnia
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Positive effects of anxiety on accuracy Yuille & Cutshall (1986) Findings
~ Witnesses had high accuracy in recall (very little change in details) even after 5 yrs ~ Witnesses who reported high-stress at time of incident had the most accurate recall with 88% accuracy ~ Low-stress witnesses had less accurate recall with 75% accuracy ~ supports that anxiety enhances the accuracy of recall
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what is the Yerkes - Dodson law (1908)
= relationship between emotional arousal +performance looks like an inverted U (graph) * crime is witnessed, person becomes emotionally (anxiety) + physiologically (adrenaline release) aroused * Low levels of arousal (anxiety) associated with low levels of performance (recall and accuracy of EWT) * As arousal increases performance increases up to an optimum * After this point, as arousal continues, performance begins to decrease
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how does Christianson & Hubinette support positive effect of anxiety
questionned 58 real victims of a bank robbery. Found that those who had acc been threatened were more accurate in recalls
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Evaluation of weapon focus effect on anxiety (weaknesses 4)
- anxiety is very difficult to define + measure accurately as it has many elements, Yerkes-Dodson Law does not take into account all the factors that contribute to anxiety (cognitive, behavioural, emotional state and physical health) which would all affect the accuracy of EWT too simplistic limited, incomplete explanation - It is argued that Johnson and Scott did not test anxiety but instead fear or surprise Other research has found that EWT is less accurate when unusual objects are involved (such as chickens) as well as weapons This suggests that the weapon focus effect is due to surprise rather than anxiety - Yuille & Cutshall, and Christianson & Hubinette used a real-life context and real-life crime as part of their investigations This observation invalidates their findings as there is a lack of control over confounding variables which can influence recall of the crime and accuracy of EWT Field study lacks validity, dk if witnesses had post event discussion or leading questions - Johnson and Scott lab based research + ethical issues (psych harm, trauma)
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Evaluation of weapon focus effect on anxiety (strengths 2)
+ Studies support the idea that anxiety leads to less accurate recall: Valentine & Mesout (2009) found that participants' recall of actors in the London Dungeons was less accurate with high-anxiety (wireless heart monitors compared to low-anxiety) used objective measure of heart rate to measure anxiety and so has high validity + Studies support the idea that anxiety leads to higher accuracy of EWT: Christianson & Hubinette (1993) found higher recall in witnesses to a real-life bank robbery Victims of the robbery (high anxiety) had better recall of the details of the robbery compared to bystanders (low anxiety) suggests anxiety improves the accuracy of EWT and supports the study of Yuille & Cutshall However rl studies lack control over extraneous variables
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How to improve accuracy of EWT
The Cognitive Interview Technique
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What is The Cognitive Interview
questioning technique used by police to enhance retrieval of info when interviewing witnesses
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What are the 4 components of The Cognitive Interview
1. Reinstatement the context 2. Report everything 3. Change order 4. Change perspective
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Who was The Cognitive Interview + why
Geiselman et al. (1985) to: 1. improve effectiveness of police interviews 2. use results of psychological research (Loftus) in the area of police interviews on witnesses and their memory of events
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What is reinstate the context
~ eyewitness being asked to recall + recreate the physical and psychological environment of the incident mentally ~ purpose of stage, make memories more accessible by giving contextual and emotional cues ~ related to context-dependent forgetting
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What is report everything
~ eyewitness is asked to report all details of event without any editing of seemingly irrelevant details ~ One specific memory may connect to another and may act as a cue for other important memories ~ Piecing together lots of small, irrelevant details may create a clearer idea of the whole event
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What is Change/reversing order
~ eyewitness asked to recall events in reverse order to how they occurred at the time ~ schemas influence perspective and recollections of events, recalling events in reverse order prevents preconceived ideas from influencing what can be recalled ~ Recalling events in different order, prevents ppl lying as it is harder to be dishonest when asked to describe events in an alternative order
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What is Change perspective
~ asked to recall events from other perspectives (other witnesses/perpetrator) ~ disrupt effect of schemas and prevent a schema overlaying the memory
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Evaluation of The Cognitive Interview (2 weaknesses)
- Kohnken et al. (1999) found an increase in the number of inaccuracies in memory recall of events found an 81% increase of correct info but also 61% increase of incorrect info when enhanced C.I was compared to a standard interview even though findings highlight effectiveness of CI, also shows a high increase of incorrect info meaning it's questionable as to whether CI should be used This suggests that CI may improve the quantity of details recalled but limit the quality (accuracy) of these memories - Carrying out a CI is a time-consuming process + requires specialist training in order to ensure the techniques are used effectively and correctly. Police officer's time is limited and there may be resistance to carrying out a full CI due to the time constraints involved in not only conducting the interview but also training police officers in the technique carrying out a full CI is not a realistic procedure for police officers to use, diff police may used diff variations of the C.I - difficult to evaluate the effectiveness + difficult to compare all ways it is used.
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Evaluation of The Cognitive Interview (2+)
+ Supporting research on the effectiveness of CI is a meta-analysis carried out by Kohnken et al. (1999) who analysed 55 different studies comparing CI and standard police interviews The findings showed that CI improved the accuracy of EWT by 41% This suggests that the CI is an effective procedure to aid witnesses in recalling accurate memories that are available but not immediately accessible following an event + The CI may aid elderly witnesses in recalling accurate details of events Mello & Fisher (1996) compared younger and elderly participants who witnessed a simulated crime CI was more effective for older participants, CI can be used for different individuals where a standard police interview may have limited effectiveness in the accuracy of EWT