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Patho > Pulmonary > Flashcards

Pulmonary Flashcards

1
Q

Ventilation

A

the movement of air into and out of the lungs

happens in pulmonary system

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2
Q

Diffusion

A

the movement gases between air spaces in the lungs and the blood stream

happens in pulmonary system

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3
Q

Perfusion

A

the movement of blood into and out of the capillary beds of the lungs to body organs and tissues

happens in cardiovascular system

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4
Q

Surfactant

A

is a complex naturally occurring substance made of six lipids (fats) and four proteins that is produced in the lungs.

it reduces the surface tension of fluid in the lungs and helps make the small air sacs in the lungs (alveoli) more stable. This keeps them from collapsing when an individual exhales

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5
Q

Surfactant

A

is a complex naturally occurring substance made of six lipids (fats) and four proteins that is produced in the lungs.

it reduces the surface tension of fluid in the lungs and helps make the small air sacs in the lungs (alveoli) more stable. This keeps them from collapsing when an individual exhales

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6
Q

Dyspnea

A

subjective sensation of uncomfortable breathing aka breathlessness, shortness of breath

objectively, we’ll see changes in respiration rate, flared nostrils, accessory muscle use, retraction of skin to intercostal space.

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7
Q

Orthopnea

A

dyspnea when a person is lying down

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8
Q

Paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea (PND)

A

extreme difficulty breathing at night when lying flat

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9
Q

Cough

A

protective reflex that helps clear the airways by an explosive expiration

Acute: lasts 2 to 3 weeks; is result of infection like pneumonia, etc.

Chronic: longer than 3 weeks; up to 7 or 8

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10
Q

Causes of cough

A
  • post nasal drainage
  • smoking
  • chronic bronchitis
  • lung cancer
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11
Q

Causes of cough

A
  • post nasal drainage
  • smoking
  • chronic bronchitis
  • lung cancer
  • asthema
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12
Q

Abnormal sputum

A

changes in amount, color, consistency provide information about progression of disease

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13
Q

Hemoptysis

A

bloody sputum

usually bright blood and sometimes see dots of blood

usually indicates inflammation of damaged bronchi or lung parenchyma

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14
Q

Abnormal breathing patterns

A

slow breathing is 12 respirations a minute or below

fast breathing is 20 respirations a minute or more

normal is between 12 and 20 per minute with a short expiratory pause after each breath; we sigh 10 to 12 times per hour

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15
Q

Kussmaul breathing

A

is hyperpnea

characterized as labored breathing with slightly increased ventilatory rate, very large tidal volumes and no expiratory pause.

not sustainable although depth and rhythm will be steady, just too deep

is related to a disease process

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16
Q

Cheyne-Stokes breathing

A

characterized by alternating periods of deep and shallow breathing; apnea lasts 15 to 60 seconds, which is then followed by ventilations that increase in volume until a peak is reached

occur with reduced blood flow to brain stem; indicate brain stem damage

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17
Q

Hypoventilation

A

inadequate alveolar ventilation in relation to metabolic demands

occurs when minute volume (tidal volume times respiratory rate) is reduced

C02 removal is slower than C02 production and the level of C02 in the arterial blood increases, causing hypercapnia

results in respiratory acidosis

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18
Q

Hypercapnia

A

excessive C02 levels in arterial blood

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19
Q

Hyperventilation

A

alveolar ventilation exceeding metabolic demands

occurs when the lungs remove C02 faster than it is produced by cellular metabolism, resulting in decreased arterial blood C02, causing hypocapnia (low C02 levels)

results in respiratory alkalosis

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20
Q

Causes of hyperventilation

A
  • anxiety
  • acute head injury
  • pain
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21
Q

Cyanosis

A

bluish discoloration of the skin and mucous membranes caused by increasing amounts of desaturated or reduced hemoglobin (which is bluish) in the blood

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22
Q

Clubbing

A

selective bulbous enlargement of the end of a digit (finger or toe)

is associated with diseases that cause chronic hypoxemia like bronchiectasis, cystic fibrosis, lung abscess and congenital heart disease

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23
Q

Pain

A

pain caused by pulmonary disorders originates in the pleurae, airways or chest wall (see pg 680 in book)

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24
Q

Hypoxemia vs. hypoxia

A

Hypoxemia = reduced oxygenation of arterial blood, caused by respiratory alterations; an abnormal ventilation-perfusion ratio (V/Q) is the most common cause of hypoxemia

Hypoxia = reduced oxygenation of cells in tissues, may be caused by alterations of other systems as well

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25
Q

What two factors is diffusion of oxygen from alveoli into the blood dependent on?

A
  1. balance btwn the amount of air that enters the alveoli (V)
  2. the amount of blood perfusing the capillaries around the alveoli (Q)
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26
Q

Respiratory failure

A

defined as inadequate gas exchange

can result from direct or indirect injury

direct = to lungs, airways or chest wall
indirect = to other system in body, such as spinal cord
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27
Q

Causes of respiratory failure

A
  • complication after surgery
  • smoking
  • poor cardiac function
  • chronic liver failure
  • chronic renal failure
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28
Q

Hypoxemia vs. hypoxia

A

Hypoxemia = reduced oxygenation of arterial blood, caused by respiratory alterations;

Hypoxia = reduced oxygenation of cells in tissues, may be caused by alterations of other systems as well

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29
Q

Hypoxemia

A

results from

  1. poor delivery of oxygen to alveoli
  2. poor diffusion of oxygen from alveoli into the blood
  3. poor perfusion of pulmonary capillaries

Abnormal ventilation-perfusion ratio is the most common cause of Hypoxemia

V/Q mismatch refers to the abnormal distribution of ventilation and perfusion

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30
Q

Parenchyma

A

cells; the distinguished, functional cells of a gland or organ, which are supported by the stroma (or support cells)

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31
Q

Pneumothorax

A

a pleural abnormality; it is the presence of air or gas in the pleural space caused by a rupture in the visceral pleura (which surrounds the lungs) or the parietal pleura and chest wall

Types: open, tension, spontaneous, secondary

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32
Q

General patho of pneumothorax

A

it destroys the negative pressure of the pleural space and disrupts the equilibrium btwn elastic recoil forces of the lung and chest wall

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33
Q

Open and tension pneumothorax

A

in OPEN: air comes in and goes out through damaged chest wall; so air pressure in pleural space equals barometric pressure

in TENSION: air comes in, but does not go out through damaged chest wall; site of damage acts only as one way valve, closing during expiration; this causes air pressure in the pneumothorax to begin to exceed barometric pressure

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34
Q

Spontaneous and secondary pneumothorax

A

in SPONTANEOUS: occurs unexpectedly in ppls (usually males) btwn 20 and 40 years; caused by spontaneous bursting of bleb (blister-like formation) on the visceral pleura

in SECONDARY: caused by chest trauma (such as rib fracture or stab/bullet wounds that tear pleura); but most often occurs because of mechanical ventilation error

these can be both open and tension situations

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35
Q

Transudative effusion

A

a pleural abnormality;

watery fluid in pleura; fluid diffuses out of capillaries beneath pleura

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36
Q

Exudative effusion

A

a pleural abnormality;

fluid rich in cells and proteins; this fluid migrates out of capillaries

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37
Q

Hemothorax (blood)

A

a pleural abnormality;

hemorrhage into pleural space; most often happens with trauma or surgery

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38
Q

Chylothorax

A

a pleural abnormality;

milky fluid containing lymph and fat droplets that moves from lymphatic vessels into pleural space

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39
Q

Empyema (pus)

A

a pleural abnormality;

microorganisms and debris of infection accumulate in pleural space

has diff S/S of fever, presence of leukocytes, tachycardia, cyanosis

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40
Q

Manifestations of all pleural effusions (trans, exudate, emp, hemo, chylo)

A
  • dypsnea
  • compression atelectasis w/ impaired ventilation
  • pleural pain
  • mediastinal shift and cardiovascular manifestations (in extreme situations)
  • decreased breath sounds
  • dull sound to percussion on affected area
  • pleural friction rub over areas of inflamed pleura
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41
Q

Chest wall disorders

A
  • Restrictions

- Flail chest

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42
Q

Chest wall restrictions

A

a compromised chest wall d/t deformation, immobilization and/or obesity

pts have to work harder to breath and there is a decrease in tidal volume

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43
Q

Flail chest

A

instability of portion of chest wall

results from the fracture of several consecutive ribs, which causes paradoxical movement of chest wall during inhalation and exhalation (aka. impaired portion of the wall moves inward during inspiration and moves outward during expiration)

biggest S/S: gas exchange impairment

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44
Q

Normal movement of chest during inhale/exhale

A

normally when we inhale, the chest moves out and when we exhale, the chest moves in

45
Q

Restrictive lung disease

A

characterized by decreased compliance of the lung tissues

46
Q

Atelectasis

A

the collapse of lung tissue

tends to develop after surgery

two types:

  • compression
  • absorption
47
Q

Compression atelectasis

A

caused by external pressure exerted by tumor, fluid, or air in pleural space or by abdominal distention pressing on a portion of lungs (like distention we see in ascites), causing ALVEOLI to collapse

48
Q

Absorption atelectasis

A

results from removal of air from obstructed or hypoventilated ALVEOLI or from inhalation of concentrated oxygen or anesthetic agents

49
Q

Manifestations of atelectasis

A

similar to those of pulmonary infection, include:

  • dyspnea
  • cough
  • fever
  • leukocytosis
50
Q

Bronchiectasis (LARGE and dilation)

A

is persistent abnormal dilation of the bronchi

chronic inflammation of bronchi leads to destruction of elastic and muscular components of their walls and permanent dilation

cystic fibrosis most common cause in children; other respiratory conditions are cause in adults (atelectasis, chronic inflam, TB, pneumonia)

51
Q

Manifestations of bronchiectasis

A
  • chronic, productive cough (in kids)
  • recurrent lower respir infections (with foul-smelling, purulent sputum)
  • hemoptysis
  • clubbing
52
Q

Bronchiolitis (SMALL and obstruction)

A

is a diffuse, inflammatory obstruction of the small airways or bronchioles occurring most commonly in children

in adults it usually accompanies chronic bronchitis, or in health ppl d/t inhalation of toxic gas or viral infections

lung transplant pts at risk; can lead to scar tissue

53
Q

Manifestations of bronchiolitis

A
  • increased breathing rate, marked by use of accessory muscles
  • low-grade fever
  • dry, nonproductive cough
  • hyperinflated chest
  • decrease in V/Q which leads to hypoxiema
54
Q

V/Q

A

ventilation-perfusion ratio

55
Q

Pulmonary fibrosis

A

excessive amount of fibrous or connective tissue in the lungs

Causes: genetic; also d/t formation of scar tissue after active pulmonary disease (ARDS, TB); inhalation of harmful substances

Leads to (S/S): decreased lung compliance, difficult ventilation; damaged alveolocapillary membrane can’t diffuse well, causing hypoxemia

56
Q

Inhalation Disorders

A

lung issues caused by inhalation of damaging substances; can damage a lot of mechanisms in lung and can lead to ARDS

Types:
-Pneumoconiosis (inorganic substances)…progressive disease that causes scarring of AC membrane

  • allergic alveolitis (organic substances)
  • toxic gas including oxygen toxicity (causes severe response that releases free radicals that damage AC membrane
57
Q

Inhalation Disoders

A

lung issues caused by inhalation of damaging substances; can damage a lot of mechanisms in lung and can lead to ARDS

Types:
-Pneumoconiosis (inorganic substances)…progressive disease that causes scarring of AC membrane

  • allergic alveolitis (organic substances)
  • toxic gas including oxygen toxicity (causes severe response that releases free radicals that damage AC membrane
58
Q

Pneumoconiosis - manifestations and causes

A

Causes:

  • workplace exposure
  • silica, asbestos, coal

S/S:

  • cough
  • chronic sputum
  • dyspnea
  • decreased lung volume
  • hypoxemia
59
Q

Allergic alveolitis - manifestations and causes

A

Causes:

  • farm dust
  • bird droppings, feathers, etc.

S/S (can be acute onset)

  • fever
  • cough
  • chills
  • may need hospitalization
60
Q

Toxic gases - manifestations and causes

A

Causes:

  • oxygen overdose
  • carbon monoxide
  • ammonia
  • heated air

S/S:

  • burning in eyes, nose, throat
  • cough
  • tightening of chest
  • dyspnea
  • hypoxemia
61
Q

Pulmonary Edema

A

Excessive water in lungs

62
Q

Patho of pulmonary edema

A

three pathways:

  1. valvular dysfunction (increased left arterial pressure)
  2. injury to capillary endothelium (increased capillary permeability)
  3. blockage of lymphatic vessels (inability to remove excess fluid from interstitial space)
63
Q

Manifestations of pulmonary edema

A
  • dyspnea
  • increased work to breath
  • inspiratory crackles **
  • dull percussion sound over affected area
  • hypoxemia
  • pinky frothy sputum **
  • decreased lung compliance
  • decreased tidal volume
  • hypercapnia
64
Q

ARDS (Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome)

A

characterized by acute lung inflammation and diffuse AC membrane injury

3 components to define ARDS:

  1. acute onset of bilateral infiltrates on x-ray
  2. ow ratio of portal pressure of arterial oxygen to the fraction of inhaled oxygen (refractory oxygen)
  3. absence of clinical evidence of LV hypertrophy or cardiac hypertension
65
Q

Risk and predisposing factors for ARDS

A
  • sepsis
  • multiple traumas
  • pneumonia
  • burns
  • aspiration

death by ARDS is usually in combo with other diseases

66
Q

General progression of ARDS

A

Dyspnea and hypoxemia

Hyperventilation and respiratory alkalosis

Decreased tissue perfusion, organ dysfunction, and metabolic acidosis

Increased work of breathing, decreased tidal volume, and hypoventilation

Respiratory acidosis and worsening hypoxemia

Hypotension, decreased cardiac output, death

67
Q

Manifestations of ARDS

A
  • inspiratory crackles

- refractory hypoxemia (unresponsiveness to oxygen treatment)

68
Q

Common traits of all Obstructive Lung Diseases

A

Airway obstruction that is worse with expiration

Common S/S:

  • dyspnea
  • wheezing **
  • prolonged expiration **

Common obstructive disorders are:

  • COPD
  • Asthema
  • Chronic Bronchitis
  • Emphysema

Chronic bronchitis and emphysema together are often called COPD, but these two diseases can occur separately

69
Q

Common traits of all Obstructive Lung Diseases

A

Airway obstruction that is worse with expiration

Common S/S:

  • dyspnea
  • wheezing **
  • prolonged expiration **

Common obstructive disorders are:

  • COPD
  • Asthma
  • Chronic Bronchitis
  • Emphysema

Chronic bronchitis and emphysema together are often called COPD, but these two diseases can occur separately

70
Q

Asthma

A

chronic inflammatory disorder of the bronchial mucosa

causes hyperresponsiveness and construction of the smooth muscle airways (bronchi)

can lead to status asthamaticus

71
Q

Manifestations of asthma

A

At onset of attack:

  • chest constriction
  • expiratory wheezing
  • dyspnea
  • nonproductive coughing
  • prolonged expiration
  • tachycardia
  • tachypnea

Severe attacks:

  • use of accessory muscles of respiration
  • wheezing on inspiration and expiration
  • status asthmaticus (severe bronchospasm), which leads to
  • hypoxiema
  • decreased ventilation
  • acidosis
72
Q

Manifestations of asthma

A

At onset of attack:

  • chest constriction
  • expiratory wheezing
  • dyspnea
  • nonproductive coughing
  • prolonged expiration
  • tachycardia
  • tachypnea

Severe attacks:

  • use of accessory muscles of respiration
  • wheezing on inspiration and expiration
  • status asthmaticus (severe bronchospasm), which leads to
  • hypoxiema
  • decreased ventilation
  • acidosis
73
Q

COPD

A

defined as preventible and treatable disease with some significant extrapulmonary effects that may contribute to the severity in individual patients

is combo of chronic bronchitis and emphysema

74
Q

Differences of Obstructive disease from picture on PP slide

A

In EMPHYSEMA will see:
-enlargement of alveoli walls and loss of elasticity

In CHRONIC BRONCHITIS will see:
-mucos plugs
-enlarged submucosal glands
-

75
Q

Differences of Obstructive disease from picture on PP slide

A

In EMPHYSEMA will see:
-enlargement of alveoli walls and loss of elasticity

In CHRONIC BRONCHITIS will see:

  • mucous plugs (and chronic cough to clear mucous)
  • enlarged submucosal glands
  • imflammation of epithelium

In ASTHMA will see:

  • tight bands of smooth muscle (muscle constriction)
  • will also have mucous but not like in Chron Bron
76
Q

COPD

A

defined as preventible and treatable disease with some significant extrapulmonary effects that may contribute to the severity in individual patients

will see trapped air in alveoli!

is combo of chronic bronchitis and emphysema

77
Q

Differences of Obstructive disease from picture on PP slide

A

In EMPHYSEMA will see:
-enlargement of alveoli walls and loss of elasticity

In CHRONIC BRONCHITIS will see:

  • mucous plugs (and chronic cough to clear mucous)
  • enlarged submucosal glands
  • inflammation of epithelium

In ASTHMA will see:

  • tight bands of smooth muscle (muscle constriction)
  • will also have mucous but not like in Chron Bron
78
Q

Risk factors for COPD

A
  • smoking
  • environmental shit
  • genetic factors
  • occupational exposure
79
Q

Chronic Bronchitis

A

hypersecretion of mucus and chronic productive cough that lasts for at least 3 months of the the year and for at least 2 consecutive years.

80
Q

Patho of Chron Bron

A

inspired irritants increase mucus production and the size and number of mucous glands

mucous is tenacious and prevalent and thick

81
Q

Patho of pneumonia

A
  • aspiration of oropharynegeal secretions

- inhalation of microorganisms that have been released into air by an infected individual

82
Q

Manifestations of Chron Bron

A
  • bronchospasms
  • dyspnea
  • productive cough
  • V/Q mismatch leads to hypoxemia
  • airtrapping
  • tidal volume decrease
  • hypoventilation and hypercapnia

prone to infections d/t compromised immune sxs

83
Q

Manifestations of Chron Bron

A

is the blue bloater

  • bronchospasms
  • dyspnea
  • productive cough
  • V/Q mismatch leads to hypoxemia
  • airtrapping
  • tidal volume decrease
  • hypoventilation and hypercapnia
  • cyanosis ***

prone to infections d/t compromised immune sxs

84
Q

Emphysema

A

abnormal permanent enlargement of the gas-exchange airways accompanied by destruction of alveolar walls without obvious fibrosis; loss of elasticity

there are changes in the actual lung tissue, which is unlike bronchitis (where there’s mucus)

you will see large spaces with no definition and the creation of blebs or blisters around the lung tissue (these result in V/Q mismatch and hypoxemia with airtrapping)

85
Q

Manifestations and risk factors of emphysema

A

is the pink puffer; often sits in triangular position

S/S:

  • hypoventilation and hypercapnia
  • chronic inflammation
  • anorexia
  • trouble breathing
  • muscle weakness
  • fatigue
  • susceptible to co-morbidities
  • barrel chest**

Risk factors:

  • primary is genetic
  • secondary is smoking, occupational exposure, air pollution
86
Q

Manifestations and risk factors of emphysema

A

is the pink puffer; often sits in triangular position

S/S:

  • hypoventilation and hypercapnia
  • chronic inflammation
  • anorexia and weight loss
  • trouble breathing
  • muscle weakness
  • fatigue
  • susceptible to co-morbidities
  • barrel chest**

Risk factors:

  • primary is genetic
  • secondary is smoking, occupational exposure, air pollution
87
Q

Pneumonia

A

can be viral, bacterial, fungal

can be in upper and lower respiratory

three types:

  1. nosocomial
  2. community acquired
  3. immuno-compromised individuals (ventilator associated)
88
Q

Patho of pneumonia

A
  • aspiration of oropharynegeal secretions

- inhalation of microorganisms that have been released into air by an infected individual

89
Q

Patho of pneumonia

A
  • aspiration of oropharynegeal secretions

- inhalation of microorganisms that have been released into air by an infected individual

90
Q

Risk factors for pneumonia

A
  • age
  • compromised immunity
  • underlying lung disease
  • alcoholism
  • smoking
91
Q

Manifestations of Viral and Bacterial pneumonia

A

Viral:

  • mostly self-limiting and short-lived
  • mild symptoms
  • will use supportive therapy to treat

Bacterial:

  • fever
  • chills
  • pleural pain
  • sometimes dypsnea and hemopytosis (bloody sputum)
  • inspiratory crackles
  • dull percussion
  • increased tactile fremitus
92
Q

Tuberculosis

A

infection caused by mycobacterium tuberculosis, an acid-fast bacillus that usually affects the lungs but may also invade other body systems

airborne transmission

can be active (contagious w/ symptoms) or latent (asymptomatic w/out symptoms)

93
Q

Patho of TB

A

once bacilli are inspired they lodge in lungs and multiple causing inflammation; some bacilli also migrate to the lymph sxs and initiate an immune response

this inflammation activates macrophages and neutrophils

which then isolate the bacilli and form granulomas

when the bacilli are isolated in the tubercles and immunity develops, you may remain dormant, but if immune system is compromised or impaired, the TB may spread to other body sxs

94
Q

Patho of TB

A

once bacilli are inspired they lodge in lungs and multiple causing inflammation; some bacilli also migrate to the lymph sxs and initiate an immune response

this inflammation activates macrophages and neutrophils

which then isolate the bacilli and form granulomas

when the bacilli are isolated in the tubercles and immunity develops, you may remain dormant, but if immune system is compromised or impaired, the TB may spread to other body sxs

95
Q

Patho of Cor Pulmonale

A

Develops as pulmonary HTN exerts chronic pressure overload on the right ventricle, which increases the work of the right ventricle and causes hypertrophy of the normally thin walled heart muscle.

This eventually progresses to dilation and failure of the ventricle.

96
Q

Manifestations of TB

A
  • cough will produce pussy sputum**
  • general anxiety
  • S/S develop gradually
97
Q

Pulmonary Embolus (PE)

A

occlusion of a portion of the pulmonary vascular bed by a thrombus, embolus, tissue fragment, lipids, or an air bubble

pulmonary emboli commonly arise from the deep veins in the thigh (remember Virchow triad)

98
Q

Manifestations of PE

A

Small one: S/S will depend on size and location where it lands

Large one:

  • sudden onset of pleural pain
  • unexplained anxiety
  • tachypnea
  • tachycardia
  • friction rub
  • fever
  • occasionally hemopytisis
  • leukocytosis
99
Q

Pulmonary Embolus (PE)

A

occlusion of a portion of the pulmonary vascular bed by a thrombus, embolus, tissue fragment, lipids, or an air bubble

pulmonary emboli commonly arise from the deep veins in the thigh (remember Virchow triad)

100
Q

Manifestations of PE

A

Small one: S/S will depend on size and location where it lands

Large one:

  • sudden onset of pleural pain
  • unexplained anxiety
  • tachypnea
  • tachycardia
  • friction rub
  • fever
  • occasionally hemopytisis
  • leukocytosis
101
Q

Lung Cancers

A

See Googledocs

102
Q

Pulmonary Hypertension

A

defined as pulmonary artery pressure 5 to 10 mm Hg above normal 20 mm Hg pressure

associated with left sided heart disease, lung disease (COPD), hypoxia. COPD, hypoxia or both can cause complications further pulmonary vasoconstriction and increase pulmonary artery pressure.

103
Q

Patho of Pulmonary HTN

A
  1. characterized by endothelial dysfunction and overproduction of vasoconstrictors.
  2. Remodeling of the pulmonary smooth muscle. Fibrosis and vessel wall thickening occur, which narrows luminal walls and constriction of blood flow.

3/ These changes cause resistance to pulmonary artery blood flow, which in turn increases the pressure in the pulmonary arteries.

  1. As resistance and pressure increase, the workload of the right ventricle increases and subsequently causes right ventricular hypertrophy, which leads to failure (cor pulmonale).
104
Q

Manifestations of Pulmonary HTN

A
  • Initially, pulmonary HTN may be seen on x-ray (enlargement of right heart) or on EKG that reflects right ventricular hypertrophy.
  • fatigue
  • chest discomfort
  • tachypnea
  • dyspnea (particularly with exercise) are common.

Exam may reveal:

  • peripheral edema
  • jugular vein distention (JVD)
  • precordial heave, and accentuation of the pulmonary component of the second heart sound.
105
Q

Cor Pulmonale

A

defined as right ventricular enlargement (hyptertrophy, dilation or both) caused by pulmonary hypertension—chronic airway issues (COPD)

106
Q

Path of Cor Pulmonale

A

Develops as pulmonary HTN exerts chronic pressure overload on the right ventricle, which increases the work of the right ventricle and causes hypertrophy of the normally thin walled heart muscle.

This eventually progresses to dilation and failure of the ventricle.

107
Q

Manifestations of Cor Pulmonale

A
  • Heart may appear normal at rest but cardiac output falls with exercise.
  • EKG may show right vent. Hypertrophy.
  • Pulmonary component of the second heart sound, which represents closure of the pulmonic valve, may be accentuated and a pulmonic valve murmur may also be present.
  • Tricuspid murmur may develop with the development of right vent. Failure.
  • Increased pressure in the systemic venous circulation cause: JVD, hepatosplenomegaly and peripheral edema.
108
Q

Tidal Volume

A

The volume of air inspired or expired in a single breath during regular breathing

Patho (8 decks)

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