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Reproductive Physiology Flashcards

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1
Q

Which type of sexual reproduction is seen in humans?

A

Oogamy – the female gamete (ovum) is large and non-motile; the male gamete (sperm) is small and motile.

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2
Q

What are the main physiological events involved in human reproduction?

A

•Gametogenesis
• Insemination (in males) / Ovulation (in females)
• Fertilization
• Implantation
• Pregnancy
• Parturition
• Lactation

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3
Q

What are the major functions of the human reproductive system?

A

• To ensure the continuation of the species
• To produce, store, nourish, and transport gametes
• To secrete sex hormones
• In females, to support the development of the embryo and fetus

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4
Q

What are the primary sex organs and what are their functions?

A

• Testes in males and ovaries in females
• Functions: produce gametes and sex hormones

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5
Q

What are secondary sex organs and give examples for both sexes.

A

Organs essential for reproductive function but not for gamete production.
• Male: ducts, glands, penis
• Female: uterus, uterine tubes, vagina

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6
Q

What are secondary sexual characteristics?

A

Features that appear during puberty and distinguish the sexes but are not directly involved in reproduction (e.g., body hair, breast development, voice deepening).

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7
Q

What are the main components of the male reproductive system?

A

• Testes
• Epididymis
• Vas deferens
• Ejaculatory duct
• Urethra
• Penis
• Accessory glands (seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands)

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8
Q

What is the function of the testes?

A

• Produce sperm (spermatogenesis)
• Secrete testosterone (endocrine function)

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9
Q

Describe the location and structure of the testes.

A

• Located in the scrotum, outside the abdominal cavity for temperature regulation.
• Enclosed in a tough fibrous capsule called the tunica albuginea, which extends inward to form septa dividing the testis into lobules.

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10
Q

What does each lobule of the testis contain?

A

1–4 seminiferous tubules where spermatogenesis occurs.

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11
Q

What are the two main types of cells in the seminiferous tubules?

A

• Spermatogenic cells (germ cells at different stages of development)
• Sertoli cells (supporting/nurse cells)

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12
Q

Where are Leydig cells located and what is their function?

A

Located in the interstitial space between seminiferous tubules; they secrete testosterone in response to LH.

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13
Q

What are the functions of Sertoli cells?

A

• Support and nourish developing sperm
• Form the blood-testis barrier
• Phagocytose residual cytoplasm
• Secrete ABP (androgen-binding protein) and inhibin

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14
Q

What is the function of the epididymis?

A

• Maturation and storage of sperm
• Absorption of excess testicular fluid

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15
Q

What is the function of the vas deferens?

A

• Transports sperm during ejaculation from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct
• Possesses thick muscular walls for peristaltic contractions

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16
Q

What are the seminal vesicles, and what do they secrete?

A

• Paired glands behind the bladder
• Secrete fructose, prostaglandins, and clotting factors
• Contribute ~60% of semen volume

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17
Q

What is the prostate gland and what does it secrete?

A

• Surrounds the urethra
• Secretes citric acid, PSA (prostate-specific antigen), and enzymes to liquefy semen

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18
Q

What are the bulbourethral glands and what is their function?

A

• Small glands below the prostate
• Secrete alkaline mucus to lubricate the urethra and neutralize acidity before ejaculation

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19
Q

What is spermatogenesis and where does it occur?

A

Spermatogenesis is the process of sperm production from diploid spermatogonia. It occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes.

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20
Q

What are the stages of spermatogenesis?

A
  1. Spermatocytogenesis: Spermatogonia → primary spermatocytes (mitosis)
    1. Meiosis I: Primary spermatocytes → secondary spermatocytes
    2. Meiosis II: Secondary spermatocytes → spermatids
    3. Spermiogenesis: Spermatids → spermatozoa (mature sperm)
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21
Q

What is spermiogenesis?

A

The final phase of spermatogenesis, where spermatids transform into mature, motile spermatozoa by developing a flagellum, condensing the nucleus, and forming the acrosome.

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22
Q

What is spermiation?

A

The process by which mature spermatozoa are released from Sertoli cells into the lumen of the seminiferous tubules.

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23
Q

How long does spermatogenesis take in humans?

A

Approximately 64–74 days.

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24
Q

What are the components of semen?

A

• Spermatozoa
• Secretions from:
• Seminal vesicles (~60%)
• Prostate (~25–30%)
• Bulbourethral glands (trace)
• Contains: fructose, enzymes, prostaglandins, buffers, mucus

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25
What is the average semen volume and sperm concentration?
• Volume: 2–5 mL per ejaculation • Sperm concentration: ≥15 million sperm/mL (normal range per WHO)
26
Which hormone stimulates Leydig cells, and what do they produce?
LH (Luteinizing Hormone) stimulates Leydig cells to produce testosterone.
27
Which hormone stimulates Sertoli cells, and what is their function?
FSH (Follicle-Stimulating Hormone) stimulates Sertoli cells to support spermatogenesis, secrete ABP, and inhibin.
28
What does androgen-binding protein (ABP) do?
Binds testosterone within the seminiferous tubules to maintain high local concentrations required for spermatogenesis.
29
What is the role of inhibin in male reproductive physiology?
Secreted by Sertoli cells to inhibit FSH secretion from the anterior pituitary (negative feedback).
30
How does testosterone exert negative feedback?
It inhibits GnRH secretion from the hypothalamus and LH secretion from the anterior pituitary.
31
What are the primary female reproductive organs?
• Ovaries (primary gonads) • Uterine (fallopian) tubes • Uterus • Cervix • Vagina • External genitalia (vulva)
32
What are the functions of the ovaries?
• Production of ova (oocytes) • Secretion of estrogen and progesterone
33
What are the two main regions of the ovary?
Cortex: contains ovarian follicles • Medulla: contains blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves
34
What is the basic unit of the ovary, and what does it contain?
The ovarian follicle, which contains a developing oocyte surrounded by follicular (granulosa) cells
35
Define oogenesis.
Oogenesis is the process by which primordial germ cells develop into mature ova (eggs).
36
When does oogenesis begin and how long does it last?
• Begins during fetal development • Oogonia enter prophase I of meiosis and arrest there until puberty • Meiosis completes only upon fertilization
37
How many primary oocytes are present at birth and at puberty ?
• At birth: ~1–2 million • At puberty: ~400,000 • Only ~400 will ovulate during reproductive life
38
What are the stages of oocyte development?
1. Oogonia (mitotic proliferation) 2. Primary oocyte (arrests in prophase I) 3. Secondary oocyte (formed after meiosis I at ovulation; arrests in metaphase II) 4. Ovum (mature egg; formed only if fertilization occurs)
39
How many primary oocytes are present at birth and at puberty?
• At birth: ~1–2 million • At puberty: ~400,000 • Only ~400 will ovulate during reproductive life
40
What is the fate of most follicles?
They undergo atresia (degeneration), never reaching ovulation.
41
What are the two main cycles involved in the female reproductive cycle?
1. Ovarian cycle – changes in the ovary 2. Uterine (menstrual) cycle – changes in the endometrium of the uterus
42
What are the three phases of the ovarian cycle?
1. Follicular phase (Day 1–14): development of ovarian follicles 2. Ovulation (Day 14): release of secondary oocyte from the dominant follicle 3. Luteal phase (Day 15–28): corpus luteum formation and hormone secretion
43
What hormones dominate during the follicular phase?
• FSH stimulates follicle growth • Estrogen is secreted by granulosa cells of developing follicles
44
What triggers ovulation?
A sudden LH surge, induced by a positive feedback effect of high estrogen levels on the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary.
45
What happens during the luteal phase?
• The ruptured follicle becomes the corpus luteum • Corpus luteum secretes progesterone (and some estrogen) • If no fertilization: corpus luteum degenerates into corpus albicans
46
What are the phases of the uterine (menstrual) cycle?
1. Menstrual phase (Day 1–5): shedding of endometrium 2. Proliferative phase (Day 6–14): endometrial regeneration under estrogen 3. Secretory phase (Day 15–28): endometrial thickening and secretion under progesterone
47
What hormone dominates the secretory phase of the uterine cycle?
Progesterone, secreted by the corpus luteum
48
What happens if fertilization does not occur?
• Corpus luteum degenerates • Progesterone and estrogen levels fall • Endometrial lining is shed (menstruation)
49
What maintains the endometrium if fertilization occurs?
hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin), secreted by the embryo, maintains the corpus luteum, which continues progesterone production.
50
Where and when does fertilization typically occur?
In the ampulla of the uterine (fallopian) tube, within 24 hours of ovulation.
51
What must sperm undergo before fertilization can occur?
1. Capacitation – functional changes that make sperm capable of fertilizing the egg 2. Acrosome reaction – release of enzymes (e.g., hyaluronidase) to penetrate zona pellucida
52
What is the significance of the zona pellucida in fertilization?
It is a glycoprotein layer surrounding the oocyte that sperm must bind to and penetrate; it ensures species-specific fertilization
53
What prevents polyspermy after fertilization?
: The cortical reaction, in which cortical granules modify the zona pellucida to block entry of additional sperm.
54
What is formed immediately after fertilization?
A zygote (diploid, 2n) — the result of fusion of male and female pronuclei.
55
What are the stages of early embryonic development post-fertilization?
1. Cleavage – rapid mitotic divisions 2. Morula – solid ball of cells 3. Blastocyst – hollow ball with inner cell mass and trophoblast
56
When and where does implantation occur?
6–7 days after fertilization in the endometrium (usually upper posterior wall of the uterus)
57
What hormone confirms implantation and maintains early pregnancy?
hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) – secreted by the trophoblast; maintains corpus luteum
58
What does the trophoblast develop into?
It forms part of the placenta and is responsible for implantation and hCG secretion.
59
What are the major functions of the placenta?
• Exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste • Hormone production (e.g., hCG, progesterone, estrogen) • Acts as a partial immune barrier between mother and fetus
60
What are the two main components of the placenta?
1. Fetal part – derived from the chorion 2. Maternal part – derived from the endometrium (decidua basalis)
61
What are the key hormones secreted by the placenta?
• hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) • hPL (human placental lactogen) • Estrogen • Progesterone • Relaxin
62
What is the role of hCG in pregnancy?
• Maintains the corpus luteum in early pregnancy • Stimulates secretion of progesterone • Basis for most pregnancy tests
63
What is the function of hPL (human placental lactogen)?
• Modifies maternal metabolism to favor fetal nutrition • Promotes lipolysis and insulin resistance in the mother
64
What is the role of progesterone during pregnancy?
• Maintains the endometrium • Inhibits uterine contractions • Supports growth of mammary glands
65
What is parturition and what triggers it?
Parturition is the process of childbirth. It is triggered by: • Increased fetal cortisol • Increased estrogen:progesterone ratio • Increased oxytocin and prostaglandins
66
What hormone is critical for the initiation of labor?
Oxytocin, secreted by the posterior pituitary, which stimulates uterine contractions.
67
What are the stages of labor?
1. Dilation of the cervix 2. Expulsion of the baby 3. Delivery of the placenta
68
What hormone stimulates milk production?
Prolactin, secreted by the anterior pituitary
69
What hormone stimulates milk ejection (let-down reflex)?
Oxytocin, released in response to infant suckling
70
What happens during the follicular phase?
• FSH stimulates growth of ovarian follicles • Granulosa cells produce estrogen • One dominant follicle is selected for ovulation
71
What triggers ovulation?
A surge in LH, caused by rising estrogen levels, triggers the rupture of the dominant follicle and release of the secondary oocyte.
72
What occurs in the luteal phase?
• The ruptured follicle becomes the corpus luteum • It secretes progesterone and some estrogen • Prepares the endometrium for implantation • If no fertilization occurs → corpus luteum degenerates into corpus albicans
73
What are the three phases of the uterine cycle?
1. Menstrual phase (Days 1–5): Shedding of endometrial lining 2. Proliferative phase (Days 6–14): Regeneration of endometrium under estrogen 3. Secretory phase (Days 15–28): Thickening and glandular secretion under progesterone
74
What is the hormonal profile during the proliferative phase?
• Estrogen dominates • Endometrium regenerates and thickens • Cervical mucus becomes thin and watery for sperm entry
75
What is the hormonal profile during the secretory phase?
• Progesterone dominates • Endometrium becomes highly vascularized and glandular • Cervical mucus thickens to form a plug
76
What hormonal changes cause menstruation?
• If no fertilization: corpus luteum degenerates • ↓ Progesterone and estrogen • Endometrial lining sloughs off
77
What maintains the endometrium if fertilization occurs?
hCG from the embryo maintains the corpus luteum, which continues progesterone production.
78
What is the average length of the menstrual cycle?
About 28 days, but can range from 21–35 days in adults.
79
Describe the sequence of events, timing, and control of gonadal development.
•Weeks 1–6: Gonads are bipotential. • Week 7 (male): SRY gene → testes development • Week 9–10 (female): Absence of SRY → ovaries form • Hormonal control: • Testes secrete AMH (from Sertoli cells) → regression of Müllerian ducts • Testosterone (from Leydig cells) → development of Wolffian ducts
80
Describe development of internal and external genitalia.
• Internal (male): Wolffian ducts → vas deferens, epididymis, seminal vesicles (testosterone) • Internal (female): Müllerian ducts → uterus, fallopian tubes, upper vagina (no AMH) • External (male): Genital tubercle → penis; labioscrotal swelling → scrotum (DHT) • External (female): Genital tubercle → clitoris; labioscrotal swelling → labia majora
81
Describe the sequence from spermatogonia to sperm.
1. Spermatogonia (2n) → mitosis 2. Primary spermatocytes (2n) → meiosis I 3. Secondary spermatocytes (n) → meiosis II 4. Spermatids (n) → spermiogenesis 5. Spermatozoa (n) → spermiation
82
Trace the path of sperm from seminiferous tubules to urethra.
Seminiferous tubules → rete testis → efferent ductules → epididymis → vas deferens → ejaculatory duct → prostatic urethra → membranous urethra → penile (spongy) urethra
83
Role of the seminal vesicles in semen?
• Contribute ~60% of semen • Secrete fructose, prostaglandins, and clotting proteins
84
Role of the prostate gland in semen?
• Contributes ~25–30% • Secretes citric acid, PSA, zinc, and enzymes for liquefaction
85
Role of bulbourethral (Cowper’s) glands in semen?
• Produce alkaline mucus for lubrication and neutralizing acidic urine in urethra
86
What are the feedback controls from the testes?
• Testosterone: Negative feedback to hypothalamus (↓ GnRH) and pituitary (↓ LH) • Inhibin (from Sertoli cells): Inhibits FSH from pituitary
87
Effects of androgens on male physiology?
• Accessory organs: growth and maintenance • Secondary sex characteristics: voice deepening, body hair • Growth: stimulates linear bone growth, closure of epiphyses • Protein metabolism: anabolic (↑ muscle mass) • Behavior: increases libido and aggression
88
Hormonal control of the corpus luteum?
• Formed after ovulation from ruptured follicle • Secretes progesterone and estrogen • LH maintains it briefly • If no fertilization: degenerates into corpus albicans → ↓ hormones → menstruation • If pregnancy: hCG from embryo maintains it until placenta takes over
89
Compare phases of menstrual cycle (ovarian vs uterine).
Ovarian cycle: • Follicular (day 1–14) • Ovulation (day 14) • Luteal (day 15–28) Uterine cycle: • Menstrual (day 1–5) • Proliferative (day 6–14) • Secretory (day 15–28)
90
Effects of estrogen and progesterone on reproductive tissues?
Endometrium: • Estrogen: proliferation • Progesterone: glandular secretion, maintenance Cervical mucus: • Estrogen: thin and watery (sperm entry) • Progesterone: thick and sticky (blocks entry) Myometrium: • Estrogen: increases contractility • Progesterone: inhibits contractility
91
Common symptom in destruction of Leydig and Sertoli cells?
• Both result in infertility (Leydig → no testosterone; Sertoli → no support for spermatogenesis)
92
Symptom not common between Leydig and Sertoli cell loss?
• Leydig cell loss: ↓ testosterone → loss of secondary sexual characteristics • Sertoli cell loss: testosterone may still be present, so secondary sex traits preserved, but no sperm production
93
A man is sterile, shows no demasculinization, has ↑ FSH, and normal LH. What is the likely cause of his sterility?
Sertoli cell dysfunction. • ↑ FSH suggests lack of inhibin, which is secreted by Sertoli cells. • Normal LH → Leydig cells are intact → normal testosterone → normal male traits • Sertoli cell failure → impaired spermatogenesis → infertility
94
For male contraception via the anterior pituitary, should you block FSH or LH? Why?
Block FSH. • FSH is essential for stimulating Sertoli cells and initiating spermatogenesis. •LHstimulates.testosterone;blocking it may cause demasculinization. • Blocking FSH impairs sperm production without necessarily lowering testosterone.
95
A 30-year-old man has very small muscles, sparse beard, high-pitched voice, and elevated LH. What is the likely cause?
Leydig cell failure (primary hypogonadism). • Leydig cells produce testosterone in response to LH. • Low testosterone → loss of androgenic effects (muscle, hair, voice) • Lack of negative feedback → ↑ LH
96
Why does GnRH therapy in women often lead to multiple births?
Exogenous GnRH agonists can stimulate multiple follicles to mature if FSH/LH levels rise too quickly or strongly. → Multiple ovulations → multiple fertilizations → multiple births
97
Which of the following signals that ovulation is imminent?
A) Cervical mucus becomes thick and sticky B) Increase in body temperature C) Marked rise in plasma LH A: ✅ C) Marked rise in plasma LH • LH surge triggers ovulation within 24–36 hours • Cervical mucus becomes thin and stretchy before ovulation • Body temperature rises after ovulation (due to progesterone)
98
Why does GnRH therapy in women often lead to multiple births?
Exogenous GnRH agonists can stimulate multiple follicles to mature if FSH/LH levels rise too quickly or strongly. → Multiple ovulations → multiple fertilizations → multiple births

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