Research & Program Evaluation Flashcards
1
Q
689:
The most valuable type of research is…
A. always conducted using a factor analysis.
B. conducted using the chi-square.
C. the experiment, used to discover cause-and-effect relationships.
D. the quasi-experiment.
A
C. the experiment, used to discover cause-and-effect relationships.
2
Q
690:
Experiments emphasize parsimony, which means…
A. interpreting the results in the simplest way.
B. interpreting the results in the most complex manner.
C. interpreting the results using a correlation coefficient.
D. interpreting the results using a clinical interview.
A
A. interpreting the results in the simplest way.
3
Q
691:
_____ refers to whether the DVs (dependent variables) were truly influenced by the experimental IVs (independent variables) or whether other factors had an impact.
A
Internal validity
4
Q
692:
_____ refers to whether the experimental research results can be generalized to larger populations (i.e., other people, settings or conditions).
A
External validity
5
Q
693:
Occam’s Razor suggests that experimenters ______.
A. interpret the results in the simplest manner.
B. interpret the results in the most complex manner.
C. interpret the results using a correlation coefficient.
D. interpret the results using a clinical interview.
A
A. interpret the results in the simplest manner.
6
Q
694:
A counselor educator is running an experiment to test a new form of counseling. Unbeknownst to the experimenter one of the clients in the study is seeing a gestalt therapist. This experiment _______.
A. is parsimonious.
B. is an example of Occam’s Razor.
C. is confounded/flawed.
D. is valid and will most likely help the field of counseling.
A
C. is confounded/flawed.
7
Q
695:
Nondirective is to person-centered as _______.
A. psychological testing is to counseling.
B. confounding is to experimenting.
C. appraisal is to research.
D. parsimony is to Occam’s Razor.
A
D. parsimony is to Occam’s Razor.
8
Q
696:
Who publishes more counseling research articles than any other periodical in our field?
A
The APA’s Journal of Counseling Psychology.
9
Q
697:
An experiment is said to be confounded when _____.
A. undesirable variables are not kept out of the experiment.
B. undesirable variables are kept out of the experiment.
C. basic research is used in place of applied research.
D. the sample is random.
A
A. undesirable variables are not kept out of the experiment.
10
Q
698:
In experimental terminology IV stands for _____ and DV stands for _____.
A. independent variable; dependent variable
B. dependent variable; independent variable
C. individual variable; dependent variable
D. independent variable; designer variable
A
A. independent variable; dependent variable
11
Q
699:
The ______ is the variable that the researcher manipulates, controls, alters, or wishes to experiment with.
A
IV or independent variable
Hint: IV begins with “I”, so imagine yourself as the researcher and remember “I manipulate the IV” or “I experiment with the IV”.
12
Q
700:
The _____ expresses the outcome or the data.
A
DV or dependent variable
Hint: “D” = data
13
Q
701:
A professor of counselor education hypothesized that biofeedback training could reduce anxiety and improve the average score on written board exams. If this professor decides to conduct a formal experiment the IV will be the ______, and the DV will be the ______.
A. professor; anxiety level
B. anxiety level; board exam score
C. biofeedback; board exam score
D. board exam score; biofeedback
A
C. biofeedback; board exam score
14
Q
702:
Experimenters should always abide by a code of ethics. The variable you manipulate/control in an experiment is the _______.
A. DV
B. dependent variable
C. the variable you will measure to determine the outcome.
D. IV or independent variable
A
D. IV or independent variable
15
Q
703:
In order for the professor of counselor education (mentioned in previous question) to conduct an experiment regarding his hypothesis he will need a _____ and a ______.
A. biofeedback group; systematic desensitization group
B. control group; systematic desensitization group
C. control group; experimental group
D. control group with at least 60 subjects; experimental group with at least 60 subjects.
A
C. control group; experimental group
16
Q
704:
The _____ group does not receive the IV. The _____ group receives the IV.
A. control; experimental
B. experimental; control
C. biofeedback; control
D. control; biofeedback
A
A. control; experimental
17
Q
705:
If you cannot randomly assign subjects in a study to the two groups necessary, then your exam will consider the research a ______ experiment.
A. bad
B. good
C. correlational
D. quasi
A
D. quasi
18
Q
706:
Correlational research requires ___ subjects per variable, while a survey should include at least ___ people.
A. 15: 30
B. 30; 50
C. 20; 100
D. 30; 100
A
D. 30; 100
19
Q
707:
In order for the professor of counselor education to conduct the experiment suggested in a previous question, the experimental group would need to receive ______.
A. the manipulated IV
B. the biofeedback training
C. a & b
D. the organismic IV
A
C. a & b
20
Q
708:
Hypothesis testing is most closely related to the work of _______.
A. Robert Hoppock
B. Sigmund Freud
C. Lloyd Morgan
D. R. A. Fisher
A
D. R. A. Fisher
21
Q
709:
A _______ is a statement which can be tested regarding the relationship of the IV and the DV.
A. sentence
B. hypothesis
C. demand
D. study
A
B. hypothesis
22
Q
710:
The null hypothesis suggests that there will not be a significant difference between the experimental group which received the IV and the control group which did not. Thus, if the experiment in the previous question was conducted, the null hypothesis would suggest that __________.
A. all students receiving biofeedback training would score equally well on the board exam.
B. systematic desensitization might work better than biofeedback.
C. biofeedback will not improve the board exam scores.
D. meta-analysis is required.
A
C. biofeedback will not improve the board exam scores.
Hint: null = nothing, therefore, a null hypothesis simply means that the IV does not affect the DV.
23
Q
711:
A ___ - analysis is a study that analyzes the findings of numerous studies.
A. meta
B. mega
C. big
D. quasi
A
A. meta
24
Q
712:
The hunch is known as the experimental or alternative, or affirmative hypothesis. The experimental hypothesis suggests that a difference will be evident between the control group and the experimental group (i.e., the group receiving the IV). Thus, if the experiment in the previous questions were conducted, the experimental hypothesis would suggest that ________.
A. the biofeedback would raise board scores.
B. the control group will score better on the board exam.
C. there will be no difference between the experimental and the control groups.
D. the experiment has been confounded.
A
A. the biofeedback would raise board scores.
25
#713:
From a purely statistical standpoint, in order to compare a control group to the experimental group the researcher will need ______.
A. a correlation coefficient
B. only descriptive statistics
C. percentile rank
D. a test of significance
D. a test of significance
26
#714:
When you see the letter "P" in relation to a test of significance it means ______.
A. portion
B. population parameter
C. probability
D. the researcher is using an ethnographic qualitative approach
C. probability
Probability = level of significance
27
#715:
A _____ is technically a value obtained from a population while a statistic is a value drawn from a sample. It summarizes a characteristic of a population such as the average male's height is 5'9".
A. probability
B. observation
C. portion
D. parameter
D. parameter
28
#716:
In the social sciences the accepted probability level is usually _____.
A. .05 or less
B. 1.0 or higher
C. .0001 or less
D. .05 or higher
A. .05 or less
Two most popular levels of significance are .05 and .01.
29
#717:
P = .05 really means that ________.
A. five subjects were not included in the study.
B. there is only a 5% chance that the difference between that control group and the experimental groups is due to chance factors.
C. the level of significance is .01.
D. no level of significance has been set.
B. there is only a 5% chance that the difference between that control group and the experimental groups is due to chance factors.
30
#718:
The "level of significance" also means ______.
level of confidence
31
#719:
P = .05 really means that _______.
A. differences truly exist; the experimenter will obtain the same results 95 times out of 100.
B. differences truly exist; the experimenter will obtain the same results 99 times out of 100.
C. there is a 95% error factor.
D. there is a 10% error factor.
A. differences truly exist; the experimenter will obtain the same results 95 times out of 100.
32
#720:
The study that would best rule out chance factors would have a significance level of P = _____.
A. .05
B. .01
C. .001
D. .08
C. .001
The smaller the value for "P" the more stringent the level of significance. For example, the .001 level indicates that there is only one chance in 1,000 that the results are due to chance.
33
#721:
Type I and Type II errors are called ______ and ______ respectively.
A. beta; alpha
B. .01; .05
C. A & B
D. alpha; beta
Pg. 426
D. alpha; beta
Type 1 = alpha error
- occurs when a researcher rejects the null hypothesis when it is true
memory device; you REJECT ("R") null when you should ACEEPT ("A") it
Type 2 = beta error
- occurs when you accept null when it is false
34
#722:
A Type I error occurs when ______.
A. you have a beta error.
B. you accept null when it is false.
C. you reject null when it is true.
D. you fail to use a test of significance.
C. you reject null when it is true.
Null hypothesis = when the IV does not affect the DV
35
#723:
A Type II error _________.
A. is also called a beta error.
B. means you reject null when it is applicable.
C. means you accept null when it is false.
D. A & C.
D. A & C.
Think of the Type I & Type II relationship as a seesaw - when one goes up the other goes down
36
#724:
Assume the experiment previously referenced is conducted. The results indicate that the biofeedback helped raise written board exam scores but in reality this is not the case. The researcher has made a ________.
A. Type I error.
B. Type II error.
C. beta error.
D. B & C.
Pg. 427
A. Type I error.
37
#725:
A counselor educator decides to increase the sample size in her experiment. This will _______.
A. confound the experiment in nearly every case.
B. raise the probability of Type I and Type II errors.
C. have virtually no impact on Type I and Type II errors.
D. reduce Type I and Type II errors.
Pg. 428
D. reduce Type I and Type II errors.
38
#726:
If a researcher changes the significance level from .05 to .001, then ________.
A. alpha and beta errors will increase.
B. alpha errors increase but beta errors decrease.
C. alpha errors decrease; however, beta errors increase.
D. this will have no impact on Type I and Type II errors.
Pg. 428
C. alpha errors decrease; however, beta errors increase.
39
#727:
A counselor believes that clients who receive assertiveness training will ask more questions in counseling classes. An experimental group receives assertiveness training while a control group does not. In order to test for significant differences between the groups the counselor should utilize _________.
A. the student's t test.
B. a correlation coefficient.
C. a survey.
D. an analysis of variance (ANOVA).
Pg. 429
A. the student's t test.
40
#728:
The researcher in question 727 now attempts a more complex experiment. One group receives no assertiveness training, a second group receives four assertiveness training sessions, and a third group receives six sessions. The statistic of choice would be the ______.
A. mean
B. t test
C. two-way ANOVA
D. ANOVA
Pg. 430
D. ANOVA
41
#729
If the researcher in the previous question utilized two IVs then the statistic of choice would be the ________.
A. median
B. t test
C. two-way ANOVA or MANOVA
D. ANOVA
Pg. 430
C. two-way ANOVA or MANOVA
42
#730:
To complete a t test you would consult a tabled value of t. In order to see if significant differences exist in an ANOVA you would consult ________.
A. the mode
B. a table for t values
C. a table for F values
D. the chi-square
Pg. 430
C. a table for F values
43
#731:
Which level of significance would best rule out chance factors?
A. .05
B. .01
C. .2
D. .001
Pg. 431
D. .001
44
#732:
When a researcher uses correlation, then there is no direct manipulation of the IV. A researcher might ask, for example, how IQ correlates with the incidence of panic disorder. Again, nothing is manipulated; just measured. In cases such as this a correlation coefficient will reveal _________.
A. the relationship between IQ and panic disorder.
B. the probability that a significant difference exists.
C. an F test.
D. percentil rank
Pg. 431
A. the relationship between IQ and panic disorder.
45
#733:
If data indicate that students who study a lot get very high scores on state counseling licensing exams, then the correlation between study time and LPC exam scores would be _______.
A. positive
B. negative
C. 0.00
D. impossible to ascertain
Pg. 432
A. positive
46
#734:
Which of the following would most likely yield a perfect correlation of 1.00?
A. IQ and salary
B. ICD diagnosis and salary
C. Length in inches and length in centimeters
D. Height and weight
Pg. 433
C. Length in inches and length in centimeters
47
#735:
A good guess would be that if you would correlate the length of CACREP graduates' baby toes with their CPCE scores the result would be ______.
A. close to 0.00
B. close to a perfect 1.00
C. close to a perfect negative correlation of -1.00
D. be about +.70
Pg. 433
A. close to 0.00
48
#736:
Dr. X discovered that the correlation between therapists who hold NCC status and therapists who practice systematic desensitization is .90. A student who perused Dr. X's research told his fellow students that Dr. X had discovered that attaining NCC status causes therapists to become behaviorally oriented. The student is incorrect because _________.
A. systematic desensitization is clearly not a behavioral strategy.
B. this can only be determined via a histogram.
C. the study suffers from longitudinal and maturational effects.
D. correlation does not imply causal.
Pg. 434
D. correlation does not imply causal.
49
#737:
Behaviorists often utilize N = 1, which is called intensive experimental design. The first step in this approach would be to ________.
A. consult a random number table.
B. decide on a nonparametric statistical test.
C. take a baseline measure.
D. compute the range
Pg. 434
C. take a baseline measure.
"N", or the number of persons being studied, is one.
50
#738
In a new study the clients do not know whether they are receiving an experimental treatment for depression or whether they are simply part of the control group. This is, nevertheless, known to the researcher. Thus, this is a _________.
A. double-blind study
B. single-blind study
C. baseline for an intensive N = 1 design
D. participant observer model
Pg. 435
B. single-blind study
51
#739
A large study at a major university gave an experimental group of clients a new type of therapy that was intended to ameliorate test anxiety. The control group did not receive the new therapy. Neither the clients nor the researchers knew which students received the new treatment. This was a _______.
A. double-blind study
B. single-blind study
C. typical AB design
D. case of correlational researcher
Pg. 436
A. double-blind study
52
True or False
Experimenter effects can flaw an experiment because the experimenter might unconsciously communicate his or her intent or expectation to the subjects.
Pg. 436
True
53
This type of experiment design is the simplest type of single-subject research and was initially popularized by behavior modifiers in the 1960s and 1970s.
Pg. 436
AB or ABA time-series design
54
#740
Experimental is to cause and effect as correlational is to ________.
A. blind study
B. double-blind study
C. N = 1 design
D. degree of relationship
Pg. 437
D. degree of relationship
Hint: A correlation coefficient is a descriptive statistic which indicates the degree of "linear relationship" between two variables.
55
#741
In a normal curve the mean, median, and the mode all fall precisely in the middle of the curve. From a graphical standpoint the so-called normal or Gaussian curve (named after the astronomer/mathematician K. F. Gauss) looks like _________.
A. a symmetrical bell
B. the top half of a bowling ball
C. the top half of a hot dog
D. a mountain which is leaning toward the left
Pg. 437
A. a symmetrical bell
56
#742
The most common measures of central tendency are the mean, median, and mode. The mode is _______.
A. the most frequently occurring score and the least-important measure of central tendency.
B. always 10% less than the mean
C. the arithmetic average
D. the middle score in the distribution of scores
Pg. 438
A. the most frequently occurring score and the least-important measure of central tendency.
57
The _____ score is the highest point on the curve of a graph.
A. mode
B. modal
C. red
D. bell
Pg. 438
B. modal
58
#743
A bimodal distribution has two modes (i.e., most frequently occurring scores). Graphically, this looks roughly like ________.
A. a symmetrical bell-shaped curve.
B. a camel's back with two humps.
C. the top half of a bowling ball.
D. a mountain which is leaning toward the left.
Pg. 439
B. a camel's back with two humps.
59
#744
In a basic curve or so-called frequency polygon the point of maximum concentration is the _______.
A. mean.
B. median
C. mode
D. range
Pg. 439
C. mode
60
True or False:
The larger the range the greater the dispersion of spread of scores from the mean.
Pg. 440
True
61
#745
The most useful measure of central tendency is the ________.
A. mean, often abbreviated by an X with a bar over it
B. median, often abbreviated by Md. or Mdn.
C. mode, often abbreviated by Mo.
D. point of maximum concentration
Pg. 440
A. mean, often abbreviated by an X with a bar over it
62
#746
In a career counseling session an electrical engineer mentions three jobs he has held. The first paid $10 per hour, the second paid $30 per hour, and the third paid a higher rate of $50 per hour. The counselor responds that the client is averaging $30 per hour. The counselor is using ________.
A. a Pearson Product-Moment Correlation coefficient
B. a factorial design
C. the harmonic mean
D. the mean
Pg. 440
D. the mean
63
#747
From a mathematical standpoint, the mean is merely the sum of the scores divided by the number of scores. The mean is misleading when ________.
A. the distribution is skewed
B. the distribution has no extreme scores
C. there are extreme scores
D. a & c
Pg. 441
D. a & c
64
#748
When a distribution of scores is not distributed normally, statisticians call it _______.
A. Gauss's curve
B. a symmetrical bell-shaped curve
C. a skewed distribution
D. an invalid distribution
Pg. 441
C. a skewed distribution
65
In a ______ distribution the left and right side of the curve are not mirror images. The mean, median, and mode all fall at different points. In a normal curve they will fall at the same point.
Pg 442
Skewed
66
#749
The median is __________.
A. the middle score when the data are arranged from highest to lowest.
B. the arithmetic average
C. the most-frequent value obtained
D. never more useful than the mean
Pg. 442
A. the middle score when the data are arranged from highest to lowest.
67
#750
In a new experiment, a counselor educator wants to ferret out the effects of more than one IV. She will use a ______ design.
A. Pearson Product-Moment r.
B. Spearman rank order rho
C. factorial
D. Solomon four-group
Pg. 443
C. factorial
68
#751
Regardless of the shape, the ______ will always be the high point when a distribution is displayed graphically.
A. degrees of freedom (df)
B. mean
C. median
D. mode
Pg. 443
D. mode
69
#752
A group of first-semester graduate students in counseling took an experimental counseling exam that was much more difficult than the NCE. All of the students scored very low. A distribution of their scores would _________.
A. always be bomidal distribution.
B. be positively skewed.
C. be negatively skewed.
D. produce a curve with a long tail to the left side of the graph.
Pg. 444
B. be positively skewed.
70
#753
Nine of the world's finest counselor educators are given an elementary exam on counseling theory. Needless to say, all of them scored extremely high. The distribution of scores would most likely be ________.
A. a bell-shaped curve.
B. positively skewed.
C. negatively skewed.
D. indicative that more information would be necessary.
Pg. 444
C. negatively skewed.
71
#754
Billy received an 82 on his college math final. This is Billy's raw score on the test. A raw score simply refers to the number of items correctly answered. A raw score is expressed in the units by which it was originally obtained. The raw score is not altered mathematically. Billy's raw score indicates that ________.
A. he is roughly a B student.
B. he answered 82% correctly.
C. his percentile rank is 82.
D. more information is obviously necessary.
Pg. 445
D. more information is obviously necessary.
You do not know how many questions were on the exam, therefore, you do not know his grade on the exam. You need more information in order to figure out his score/how well he's doing in class.
72
#755
A distribution with class intervals can be graphically displayed via a bar graph also called a _______.
A. histogram
B. sociogram
C. genogram
D. genus
Pg. 445
A. histogram
73
#756
When a horizontal line is drawn under a frequency distribution it is known as _______.
A. mesokurtic
B. the y axis
C. the ordinate
D. the x axis
Pg. 446
D. the x axis
Meso = middle; kurtic = peakedness of a curve
normal Gaussian curve is said to be mesokurtic since the peak is in the middle
"x axis" (aka abscissa) is used to plot the IV (horizontal)
"y axis" (aka ordinate) is used to plot the DV (vertical)
74
#757
The x axis is used to plot the IV scores. The x axis could also be called the ______ on your exam.
A. y axis
B. abscissa
C. DV
D. vertical axis
Pg. 446
B. abscissa
75
#758
The y axis is used to plot the frequency of the DVs. The y axis could also be called the _______ on your exam.
A. ordinate
B. abscissa
C. IV
D. horizontal axis
Pg. 446
A. ordinate
Memory device: the y axis is vertical like the letter "y".
76
#759
If a distribution is bimodal, then there is a good chance that _________.
A. the curve will be normal.
B. the curve will be shaped like a symmetrical bell.
C. the researcher is working with two distinct populations.
D. the research is useless in the field of counseling.
Pg. 447
C. the researcher is working with two distinct populations.
77
#760
If an experiment can be replicated by others with almost identical findings, then the experiment is ________.
A. impacted by the observer effect.
B. said to be naturalistic observation.
C. the result of ethological observation.
D. said to be reliable.
Pg. 447
D. said to be reliable.
naturalistic observation = when clients are observed in a natural setting or situation
ethological observation = observation of animals
78
#761
The range is a measure of variance and usually is calculated by determining the difference between the highest and the lowest score. Thus, on a test where the top score was a 93 and the lowest score was a 33 out of 100, the range would be _________.
A. 61
B. 77
C. 59
D. more information is necessary.
Pg. 447
A. 61
Range = simplest way to measure the spread of scores
"Inclusive range" = subtract lowest from highest PLUS 1
"Exclusive range" = subtract lowest from highest
If test does not specify which one to use, use exclusive.
79
#762
A sociogram is to a counseling group as a scattergram is to ________.
A. the normal curve
B. the range
C. a correlation coefficient
D. the John Henry effect
Pg. 448
C. a correlation coefficient
A scattergram (aka scatterplot) is a pictorial diagram or graph of two variables being correlated.
80
#763
A counselor educator is teaching two separate classes in individual inventory. In the morning class the counselor educator has 53 students and in the afternoon class she has 177. A statistician would expect that the range of scores on a test would be _______.
```
A. greater in the afternoon class than the morning class.
B. smaller in the afternoon class.
C. impossible to speculate about without more data.
D. nearly the same in either class.
```
Pg. 449
A. greater in the afternoon class than the morning class.
Range generally increases with sample size.
81
#764
The variance is a measure of dispersion of scores around some measure of central tendency. The variance is the standard deviation squared. A popular IQ test has a standard deviation (SD) of 15. A counselor would expect that if the mean IQ score is 100, then _______.
A. the average score of the test would be 122.
B. 95% of the people who take the test will score between 85 and 115.
C. 99% of the people who take the test will score between 85 and 115.
D. 68% of the people who take the test will score between 85 and 115.
Pg. 449
D. 68% of the people who take the test will score between 85 and 115.
82
#765
Using the data in question 764 one could say that a person with an IQ score of 122 would fall within _______.
A. + or -1 SD of the mean
B. the average IQ range
C. an IQ score which is more than 2 SD above the mean.
D. + or -2 SD of the mean
Pg. 450
D. + or -2 SD of the mean
The greater the SD, the greater the spread.
83
#766
The standard deviation (SD) is the square root of the variance. A z-score of +1 would be the same as ______.
A. 1 SD above the mean
B. 1 SD below the mean
C. the same as a so-called t-score
D. the median score if the population is normal
Pg. 450
A. 1 SD above the mean
Z-scores are the same as standard deviations (SDs)!!!
84
#767
Z-scores (also called standard scores) are the same as standard deviations, thus a z-score of -2.5 means ______.
A. 2.5 SD below the mean
B. 2.5 SD above the mean
C. a CEEB score of 500.
D. -.05% of the population falls within this area of the curve
Pg. 451
A. 2.5 SD below the mean
A CEEB score is also referred to as an ETS score. This was created to eliminate negative scores.
85
#768
A t-score is different from a z-score. A z-score is the same as the SD. A t-score, however, has a mean of 50 with every 10 points landing at a SD above or below the mean. Thus a t-score of 60 would equal +1 SD while a t-score of 40 would be _______.
A. -2 SD
B. -1 SD
C. a z-score of +2
D. a z-score of +1
Pg. 451
B. -1 SD
86
#769
An IQ score on an IQ test which was 3 SD above the mean would be _______.
A. about average
B. slightly below the norm for adults
C. approximately 110
D. very superior
Pg. 452
D. very superior
87
#770
A platykurtic distribution would look approximately like _______.
A. the upper half of a bowling ball.
B. the normal distribution.
C. the upper half of a hot dog, lying on its side over the abscissa.
D. a camel's back.
Pg. 452
C. the upper half of a hot dog, lying on its side over the abscissa.
kurtosis = peakedness of a frequency distribution
platykurtic = curve is flatter & more spread out than a normal curve (plat sounds like flat)
leptokurtic = curve is very tell, thin, and peaked (leaps tall buildings)
88
#771
Test scores on an exam that fell below 3 SD of the mean or above 3SD of the mean could be described as _______.
A. extreme
B. very typical or within the average range
C. close to the mean
D. very low scores
Pg. 453
A. extreme
89
#772
In World War II the Air Force used stanine scores as a measurement. Stanine scores divide the distribution into nine equal intervals with stanine 1 as the lowest ninth and 9 as the highest ninth. In this system 5 is the mean. Thus a Binet IQ score of 101 would fall in stanine ______.
A. 1
B. 9
C. 5
D. 7
Pg. 453
C. 5
Stanine = standard & nine
The mean or average score on the Binet is 100, so a score of 101 would fall in stanine 5.
90
#773
There are four basic measurement scales: the nominal, the ordinal, the interval, and the ratio. The nominal scale is strictly a qualitative scale. It is the simplest type of scale. It is used to distinguish logically separated groups. Which of the following illustrates the function of the nominal scale?
A. a horse categorized as a second-place winner in a show.
B. a DSM or ICD diagnostic category.
C. an IQ score of 111
D. the weight of an Olympic barbell set
Pg. 453
B. a DSM or ICD diagnostic category.
```
NOIR
N = nominal
O = ordinal
I = interval
R = ratio
```
parametic tests = interval & ratio
nonparametic tests = nominal & ordinal
Nominal scales merely classify, names, labels, or identifies by group
A nominal scale has not tru zero point & does not indicate order. (ex: street address, phone number, etc.)
91
#774
The ordinal scale rank orders variables, though the relative distance between the elements is not always equal. An example of this would be _______.
A. a horse categorized as a second-place winner in a race.
B. an IQ score of 111.
C. the weight of an Olympic barbell set.
D. a temperature of 78 degrees Fahrenheit.
Pg. 454
A. a horse categorized as a second-place winner in a race.
```
NOIR
N = nominal
O = ordinal
I = interval
R = ratio
```
parametic tests = interval & ratio
nonparametic tests = nominal & ordinal
Ordinal scale provides relative placement or standing but does not delineate absolute differences.
Adding, subtracting, multiplying, or dividing is a no-no
Ordinal = order
92
#775
The interval scale has numbers scaled at equal distances but has no absolute zero point. Most tests used in school fall into this category. You can add and subtract using interval scales but cannot multiply or divide. An example of this would be that _______.
A. an IQ of 70 is 70 points below an IQ of 140, yet a counselor could not assert that a client with an IQ of 140 is twice as intelligent as a client with an IQ of 70.
B. a 20 lb weight is half as heavy as a 40 lb weight.
C. a first-place runner in three times as fast as the third-place finisher.
D. a baseball player with number 9 on his uniform can get 9 times more hits than player number 1.
Pg. 455
A. an IQ of 70 is 70 points below an IQ of 140, yet a counselor could not assert that a client with an IQ of 140 is twice as intelligent as a client with an IQ of 70.
```
NOIR
N = nominal
O = ordinal
I = interval
R = ratio
```
parametic tests = interval & ratio
nonparametic tests = nominal & ordinal
IQ tests provide interval measurement!!!
93
#776
A ratio scale is an interval scale with a true zero point. Ratio measurements are possible using this scale. Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division all can be utilized on a ratio scale. In terms of counseling research _________.
A. the ratio scale is the most practical.
B. all true studies utilize the ratio scale.
C. A & B
D. most psychological attributes cannot be measured on a ratio scale.
Pg. 455
D. most psychological attributes cannot be measured on a ratio scale.
```
NOIR
N = nominal
O = ordinal
I = interval
R = ratio
```
parametic tests = interval & ratio
nonparametic tests = nominal & ordinal
ratio scale = highest level of measurement (time, height, weight, temperature, on the Kelvin scale, volume, and distance can all be scaled on a ratio scale).
94
#777
Researchers often utilize naturalistic observation when doing ethological investigations or studying children's behavior. In this approach _______.
A. the researcher manipulates the IV.
B. the researcher manipulates the IV and the DV.
C. the researcher does not manipulate or control variables.
D. the researcher will rely on a 2 x 3 factorial design.
Pg. 456
C. the researcher does not manipulate or control variables.
When utilizing naturalistic observation the researcher does not intervene.
95
#778
The simplest form of descriptive research is the ______ which requires a questionnaire return or completion rate of ______ to be accurate.
A. survey; 5%
B. survey; 10-25%
C. survey; 50-75%
D. survey; 95%
Pg. 456
C. survey; 50-75%
Survey problems include:
- poor construction of the instrument
- low return rate
- oftentimes, subjects are not picked at random, thus are not representative of the population
96
#779
A researcher gives a depressed patient a sugar pill and the individual's depression begins to lift. This is known as ______.
A. the Hawthorne effect
B. the Halo effect
C. the placebo affect
D. the learned helplessness syndrome
Pg. 457
C. the placebo affect
nocebo = has a negative effect (ex: when a doctor comments that a person with some condition has only 6 months to live)
97
#780
A researcher notes that a group of clients who are not receiving counseling, but are observed in a research study, are improving. Her hypothesis is that the attention she has given them has been curative. The best explanation of their improvement would be _______.
A. the Hawthorne effect
B. the Halo effect
C. the Rosenthal effect
D. a Type II error in the research
Pg. 457
A. the Hawthorne effect
"reactive effect" or "reactivity" = subjects' behavior is influenced by the very presence of the researcher
This is sometimes known as an "observer effect"
98
#781
An elementary school counselor tells the third-grade teacher that a test revealed that certain children will excel during the school year. In reality, no such test was administered. Moreover, the children were unaware of the experiment. By the end of the year, all of the children who were supposed to excel did excel! This would best be explained via ________.
A. the Hawthorne effect
B. the Halo effect
C. the Rosenthal effect or the experimenter expectancy effect
D. observer bias
Pg. 458
C. the Rosenthal effect or the experimenter expectancy effect
99
#782
A panel of investigators discovered that a researcher who completed a major study had unconsciously rated attractive females as better counselors. This is an example of ________.
A. the Hawthorne effect
B. the Halo effect
C. the Rosenthal effect
D. trend analysis
Pg. 459
B. the Halo effect
Halo effect = occurs when a trait which is not being evaluated influences a researcher's rating on another trait
Trend analysis = statistical procedure performed at different times to see if a trend is evident
100
#783
All of the following describe the analysis of covariance technique EXCEPT:
A. It is a correlation coefficient.
B. It controls for sample differences which exist.
C. It helps to remove confounding, extraneous variables.
D. It statistically eliminates differences in average values influenced by covariates.
Pg. 459
A. It is a correlation coefficient.
101
#784
Three years ago an inpatient addiction treatment center in a hospital asked their clients if they would like to undergo an archaic form of therapy created by Wilhelm Reich known as "vegotherapy". Approximately half of the clients stated that they would stick with the tried-and-true program of the center. Outcome data on their drinking was compiled at the end of seven weeks. Today - three years later - a statistician compared the two groups based on their drinking behavior at the end of the seven weeks using a t test. This study could best be described as _________.
A. correlation reseach
B. a true experiment
C. a cohort study
D. casual comparative research
Pg. 461
D. casual comparative research
Since the groups were not randomly assigned and the current researcher did not truly control the IV in the study (since it took place 3 years ago) "d" is the best answer
102
#785
The WAIS-IV IQ test is given to 100 adults picked randomly. How many of the adults most likely would receive an IQ score between 85 and 115?
A. 7
B. 99
C. 95
D. 68
Pg. 461
D. 68
in a normal distribution approximately 68% of the population will fall between +/-1 SD of the mean
one SD on most popular IQ tests is 15 or 16, and the mean score is generally 100
Choice "c" is indicative of +/-2 SD, & choice "b" is indicative of +/-3 SD
103
#786
A researcher creates a new motoric test in which clients throw a baseball at a target 40 feet away. Each client is given 100 throws, and the mean on the test is 50 (in other words, out of 100 throws the mean number of times the client will hit the target is 50 times). Sam took the test and hit the target just two times out of the 100 throws allowed. Jeff, on the other hand, hit the target an amazing 92 times out of 100 tries. Using the concept of statistical regression toward the mean the research would predict that _____________.
A. Sam's and Jeff's scores will stay about the same if they take the test again.
B. Sam and Jeff will both score over 95 next time.
C. Sam's score will increase while Jeff's will go down.
D. Sam will beat Jeff if they both are tested again.
Pg. 462
C. Sam's score will increase while Jeff's will go down.
Statistical regression predicts that very high and very low scores will move toward the mean if a test is administered again.
Quartile = refers to points that divide a distribution into fourths
25th percentile = first quartile
second quartile = median
75th percentile = third quartile
interquartile range = the score distance between the 25th percentile and the 75th
104
#787
Standardized tests always have _______.
A. formal procedures for test administration and scoring
B. a mean of 100 and an SD of 15
C. a mean of 100 and a standard error of measurement of 3
D. a reliability coefficient of +.90 or above
Pg. 463
A. formal procedures for test administration and scoring
Standardization = testing format, test materials, and scoring process is all consistent
105
#788
There are two distinct types of developmental studies. In a cross-sectional study, clients are assessed at one point in time. In a longitudinal study, however, _______.
A. the researcher has an accomplice pose as a client and act in a certain manner.
B. the same people are studied over a period of time.
C. the researcher relies on a single observation of a variable being investigated.
D. all of the above.
Pg. 463
B. the same people are studied over a period of time.
cross-sectional study = synchronic method
Longitudinal study = diachronic method
Longitudinal study:
1. age itself can be used as an IV
2. data are collected at different points in time
Cross-sectional study:
1. data are indicative of measurements or observations at a single point in time (this method is preferable in terms of time consumption)
"confederate" or "stooge" = a researchers accomplice who poses as a client and acts in a certain manner. (common with social psychology studies)
106
#789
A counselor educator, Dr. Y, is doing research on his classes. He hypothesizes that if he reinforces students in his morning class by smiling each time a student asks a relevant question, then more students will ask questions and exam grades will go up. Betty and Linda accidentally overhear Dr. Y discussing the experiment with the department chair. Betty is a real people pleaser and decides that she will ask lots of questions and try to help Dr. y confirm his hypothesis. Linda, nevertheless, is angry that she is being experimented on and promises Betty that Dr. Y could smile until the cows came in but she still wouldn't ask a question. Both Linda and Betty exemplify ________.
A. internal versus external validity.
B. ipsative versus normative interpretation of test scores.
C. the use of the nonparametric chi-square test.
D. demand characteristics of experiments.
Pg. 464
D. demand characteristics of experiments.
Ipsative = a within-person analysis rather than a normative analysis between individuals (ex: was your jog faster today than it was yesterday?)
Chi-square = most popular nonparametric statistical test. Used to determine whether an obtained distribution differs significantly from an expected distribution
Demand characteristics = any knowledge that a subject may have that can influence their behavior. Can confound an experiment.
107
#790
If an ANOVA yields a significant F value, you could rely on _______ to test significant differences between group means.
A. one- and two-tailed t tests
B. percentile rank
C. Duncan's multiple-range, Tukey's, or Scheffe's test
D. summative or formative evaluation
Pg. 465
C. Duncan's multiple-range, Tukey's, or Scheffe's test
108
#791
Switching the order in which stimuli are presented to a subject in a study is known as _______.
A. the Pygmalion effect
B. counterbalancing
C. ahistoric therapy
D. multiple treatment interference
Pg. 466
B. counterbalancing
the Pygmalion effect = Rosenthal/Experimenter effect
109
#792
A doctoral student who begins working on his bibliography for his thesis would most likely utilize _______.
A. SPSS
B. ERIC, for primary and secondary resources
C. O*NET
D. a random number table or random number-generation computer program
Pg. 466
B. ERIC, for primary and secondary resources
ERIC = Educational Resources Information Center (bank of scholarly literature and resources)
SPSS = Statistical Package Social Sciences (popular computer software program that computes statistics)
110
#793
In a random sample each individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected. Selection is by chance. In a new study, however, it will be important to include 20% African Americans. What type of sampling procedure will be necessary?
A. standard (i.e., simple) random sampling
B. cluster sampling
C. stratified sampling
D. horizontal sampling
Pg. 467
C. stratified sampling
Quota sampling = a type of stratified sampling
standard random sampling = sticking hand in fish bowl to draw name
cluster sampling = uses an existing sample/cluster of people or selects a portion of the overall sample
horizontal sampling = subjects are from a SINGLE socioeconomic group
vertical sampling = subjects are from TWO OR MORE socioeconomic groups
snowball sampling/chain referral = uses subjects to bring in other subjects for the study
111
#794
A researcher wants to run a true experiment but insists she will not use a random sample. You could safely say that ______.
A. she absolutely, positively cannot run a true experiment.
B. her research will absolutely, positively be casual comparative research.
C. she could accomplish this using systematic sampling.
D. her research will be correlational.
Pg. 468
C. she could accomplish this using systematic sampling.
Today it is more common for researchers to use systematic sampling, since it is often easier.
10,000 people, you want 1,000 for study, you include every 10th person
systemic sampling = depending on the number of interested persons (the higher the number the more it is like random) , it is much like random sampling
112
#795
An operational definition _______.
A. outlines a procedure
B. is theoretical
C. outlines a construct
D. is synonymous with the word axiom
Pg. 469
A. outlines a procedure
113
#796
In a parametric test the assumption is that the scores are normally distributed. In nonparametric testing the curve is not a normal distribution. Which of these tests are nonparametric statistical measures?
A. Mann-Whitney U test, often just called the U test.
B. Wilcoxon signed-rank test for matched pairs.
C. Soloman and the Kruskal-Wallis H test.
D. All of the above are nonparametric measures.
Pg. 470
D. All of the above are nonparametric measures.
114
#797
A researcher studies a single session of counseling in which a counselor treats a client's phobia using a paradoxical strategy. He then writes in his research report that paradox is the treatment of choice for phobics. This is an example of ________.
A. deductive logic or reasoning
B. inductive logic or reasoning
C. attrition or so-called experimental mortality
D. construct validity
Pg. 471
B. inductive logic or reasoning
inductive = goes from specific to generalization
deductive = if many subjects are observed being cured
attrition or so-called experimental mortality = when subjects drop out of a study
115
#798
A client goes to a string of 14 chemical dependency centers that operate on the 12-step model. When his current therapist suggests a new impatient program the client responds with, "what for, I already know the 12 steps?" This client is using __________.
A. deductive logic
B. inductive logic
C. an empathic assertion
D. an I statement
Pg. 472
A. deductive logic
Here the client assumes that the general can be reduced.
116
#799
Mike takes a math achievement test. In order to predict his score if he takes the test again the counselor must know _______.
A. the range of scores in his class.
B. the standard deviation.
C. the standard error of measurement (SEM).
D. the mode for the test.
Pg. 472
C. the standard error of measurement (SEM).
117
#800
A researcher performs a study that has excellent external or so-called population validity, meaning that the results have generalizability. To collect his data the researcher gave clients a rating scale in which they were to respond with strongly agree, somewhat agree, neutral, somewhat disagree, or strongly agree. This is ________.
A. a projective measure
B. unacceptable for use in standardized testing
C. a speed test
D. a Likert scale
Pg. 472
D. a Likert scale
Hint: How much do you like/Likert something?!
