Revolving in Cyclic Existence The Truth of Duḥkha Flashcards
Chapter 2 (200 cards)
1
Q
What did the Buddha specify about true duḥkha in the context of the Four Truths?
A
True duḥkha is to be known.
2
Q
Why is knowing true duḥkha considered the first step in spiritual practice?
A
Because without recognizing our unsatisfactory situation, we will not seek its causes or the path to eliminate them.
3
Q
What is the consequence of not knowing or denying our duḥkha?
A
We will not seek a remedy, and the underlying causes will continue to fester.
4
Q
What is the general framework laid out by the Four Truths?
A
Understanding our current situation (duḥkha and its origins) and our potential (cessation and the path).
5
Q
After knowing true duḥkha
A
what are the subsequent steps according to the Buddha’s teaching on the Four Truths?,To search out its causes (true origins), eliminate them by cultivating true paths, and actualize true cessations.
6
Q
Into how many general realms of samsāric existence can beings be born?
A
Three general realms.
7
Q
What are these three general realms of samsāric existence?
A
The desire realm, the form realm, and the formless realm.
8
Q
Which realm of existence is characterized by strong sensory desires and emotions?
A
The desire realm.
9
Q
Which realm of existence is characterized by subtle forms and meditative states
A
but still within samsāra?,The form realm.
10
Q
Which realm of existence is characterized by purely mental states and deep meditative absorptions
A
yet remains within samsāra?,The formless realm.
11
Q
What is the common factor among all realms of samsāric existence?
A
They are all marked by duḥkha and are conditioned by karma and afflictions.
12
Q
In the context of the desire realm
A
what are the six types of beings often enumerated?,Gods (devas), demigods (asuras), humans, animals, hungry ghosts (pretas), and hell-beings.
13
Q
Which type of rebirth within the desire realm is considered most fortunate for Dharma practice?
A
A human rebirth.
14
Q
What are the three main types of duḥkha?
A
The duḥkha of pain, the duḥkha of change, and the pervasive duḥkha of conditioning.
15
Q
What does the ‘duḥkha of pain’ refer to?
A
Obvious physical and mental sufferings such as illness, injury, loss, and distress.
16
Q
How can the ‘duḥkha of pain’ be recognized?
A
It is generally easily identifiable as unpleasant experiences we wish to avoid.
17
Q
What does the ‘duḥkha of change’ refer to?
A
The suffering that arises because ordinary pleasant experiences are impermanent and eventually lead to dissatisfaction when they cease or transform.
18
Q
Why are ordinary worldly pleasures ultimately unsatisfactory according to the duḥkha of change?
A
Because they do not last and clinging to them leads to disappointment when they change.
19
Q
What is an example of the duḥkha of change?
A
The happiness from a new possession fading over time, or a pleasant relationship ending.
20
Q
What does the ‘pervasive duḥkha of conditioning’ (or ‘pervasive compounding suffering’) refer to?
A
The fundamental unsatisfactoriness of being under the control of karma and afflictions, and having aggregates that are a basis for suffering.
21
Q
Why is the pervasive duḥkha of conditioning considered the most subtle type of duḥkha?
A
Because it underlies all experiences within cyclic existence, even seemingly neutral or pleasant ones, as our very existence is conditioned by ignorance.
22
Q
Which of the three types of duḥkha is the root of the other two?
A
The pervasive duḥkha of conditioning.
23
Q
What are the ‘five aggregates’ often associated with the pervasive duḥkha of conditioning?
A
Form, feeling, discrimination, compositional factors, and consciousness.
24
Q
Why are these contaminated aggregates considered pervasive duḥkha?
A
Because they are produced by and subject to karma and afflictions, making them a constant basis for experiencing the other two types of duḥkha.
25
How are feelings categorized in Buddhist psychology?
Pleasant, unpleasant, and neutral.
26
How can pleasant feelings lead to further duḥkha?
By giving rise to attachment and craving for more, leading to frustration when the feeling or object is gone.
27
How can unpleasant feelings lead to further duḥkha?
By giving rise to aversion, anger, and a desire to push away the experience, increasing mental turmoil.
28
How can neutral feelings contribute to duḥkha
particularly in relation to ignorance?,Neutral feelings can be overlooked, reinforcing a lack of awareness about the subtle pervasive duḥkha and the nature of reality.
29
What is the general term for negative
unpeaceful mental states that cause suffering?,Afflictions (Skt. kleśa).
30
What is the primary root affliction that fuels cyclic existence?
Ignorance (Skt. avidyā), specifically the ignorance grasping at a truly existent self.
31
How do afflictions like attachment and anger arise from ignorance?
Ignorance misapprehends the nature of self and phenomena, leading to attachment to what appears attractive and aversion to what appears unattractive.
32
What is the relationship between afflictions and karma?
Afflictions motivate actions (karma), which in turn create the causes for future experiences of duḥkha in cyclic existence.
33
Does Buddhism teach that all feelings are to be suppressed?
No, it teaches to understand the nature of feelings and to prevent them from giving rise to afflictions.
34
How does understanding the link between feelings and afflictions help in reducing duḥkha?
It allows one to observe feelings without reacting impulsively, thus cutting the chain that leads to suffering.
35
What is the first disadvantage of cyclic existence often mentioned?
The uncertainty of our circumstances within samsāra, lacking stable security.
36
What is the second disadvantage of cyclic existence?
Having no lasting satisfaction, regardless of how much samsāric pleasure or status we attain.
37
What is the third disadvantage of cyclic existence?
Having to repeatedly abandon our body at death, severing ties with loved ones and possessions.
38
What is the fourth disadvantage of cyclic existence?
Having to take rebirth again and again, propelled by karma and afflictions without choice.
39
What is the fifth disadvantage of cyclic existence?
Repeatedly experiencing a change in status, fluctuating between high and low states within samsāra.
40
What is the sixth disadvantage of cyclic existence?
Experiencing suffering and major life transitions like birth and death alone, without ultimate companionship.
41
What are the eight common unsatisfactory conditions or worldly concerns that bind us to suffering?
Attachment to gain and aversion to loss, attachment to pleasure and aversion to pain, attachment to praise and aversion to blame, attachment to fame and aversion to disgrace.
42
How does attachment to gain contribute to duḥkha?
It leads to anxiety about acquiring things and distress when they are lost or not obtained.
43
How does aversion to loss contribute to duḥkha?
It causes fear and suffering when we inevitably experience separation from what we value or encounter setbacks.
44
How does attachment to pleasure contribute to duḥkha?
It makes us constantly seek fleeting enjoyments and suffer when they are absent or cease, leading to dissatisfaction.
45
How does aversion to pain contribute to duḥkha?
It leads to resistance, fear, and amplification of suffering when unpleasant physical or mental experiences occur.
46
How does attachment to praise contribute to duḥkha?
It makes our happiness dependent on others' fleeting opinions and leads to disappointment or insecurity when criticized or ignored.
47
How does aversion to blame contribute to duḥkha?
It causes distress, anger, and defensiveness when faced with criticism, hindering self-reflection and growth.
48
How does attachment to fame (a good reputation) contribute to duḥkha?
It leads to constant striving for external validation, anxiety about maintaining a certain image, and disappointment when reputation diminishes.
49
How does aversion to disgrace (a bad reputation or anonymity) contribute to duḥkha?
It causes shame, sadness, and suffering when our reputation is tarnished or we feel unrecognized.
50
What is the underlying issue with these eight worldly concerns?
They are all based on an excessive focus on external, impermanent circumstances and a misunderstanding of the true internal causes of happiness and suffering.
51
Why is a human life considered particularly valuable in Buddhism?
It offers a unique combination of suffering that motivates change and intelligence that allows for understanding and practicing the Dharma.
52
What are some advantages of human rebirth compared to other realms for Dharma practice?
Humans generally experience a balance of pleasure and pain conducive to recognizing duḥkha, possess sufficient intelligence, and have access to spiritual teachings.
53
Compared to beings in hell realms or as hungry ghosts
what advantage do humans have for Dharma practice?,Humans are not constantly overwhelmed by intense suffering, allowing the mental space and energy needed for reflection and practice.
54
Compared to beings in god realms
what advantage do humans have for Dharma practice?,Humans are less likely to be deeply distracted by constant, overwhelming pleasures and thus more readily recognize impermanence and the urgency of practicing Dharma.
55
What is meant by a "precious human rebirth" or a "human life of leisure and opportunity"?
A human life endowed with specific internal and external conditions that are highly conducive to engaging in meaningful spiritual practice.
56
What are some of the 'eight leisures' that characterize a precious human life?
Not being born in a hell realm, as a hungry ghost, an animal, a long-living god, in a land where Dharma is unknown, holding fundamentally wrong views, having impaired mental or physical faculties preventing Dharma understanding, or living in an age where a Buddha has not appeared or teachings are unavailable.
57
What are some of the 'ten endowments' that characterize a precious human life?
Personal endowments include: being human, born in a central land (where Dharma flourishes), possessing sound faculties, not having committed heinous negative karmas, and having faith in the reliable objects of refuge and ethical principles. Circumstantial endowments include: a Buddha having appeared in the world, the Buddha having taught the Dharma, the teachings still existing and being accessible, there being practitioners who uphold the teachings, and there being supportive conditions like kindness from others for practice.
58
How should one reflect on the value of a human life to motivate Dharma practice?
By considering its rarity, its immense potential for achieving liberation and enlightenment, and its impermanent nature, realizing it must be used wisely.
59
What is the danger of wasting a precious human rebirth?
Losing the unparalleled opportunity to free oneself and others from the cycle of suffering, and potentially taking a lower, less fortunate rebirth in the future.
60
How does contemplating the value of human life relate to the truth of duḥkha?
It highlights that while this specific form of existence is still within the realm of duḥkha, it offers the best chance to understand and ultimately overcome it.
61
What is the literal meaning of the Sanskrit word 'samsāra'?
Continuous flow, wandering, or cycling.
62
What keeps beings trapped in samsāra?
Unknowing (ignorance), which gives rise to afflictions (disturbing emotions and views), which in turn motivate contaminated actions (karma).
63
Is samsāra primarily a physical place?
While samsāra includes different rebirth realms with varying environments, it fundamentally refers to the conditioned state of mind and experience bound by ignorance, afflictions, and karma.
64
What are the twelve links of dependent origination
and how do they describe the mechanics of samsāra?,They describe the causal chain, starting with ignorance and leading through karmic formations, consciousness, name and form, the six senses, contact, feeling, craving, grasping, becoming, birth, and finally aging and death, which perpetuates the cycle of rebirths within samsāra.
65
Which of the twelve links is considered the root cause of samsāric existence?
Ignorance, specifically the fundamental misapprehension of the true nature of reality, particularly the lack of inherent existence of persons and phenomena.
66
How does karma function to create experiences within samsāra?
Intentional actions (physical, verbal, and mental) create karmic imprints or seeds on the mindstream, which, when conditions are suitable, ripen into future experiences of happiness or suffering and determine future rebirths.
67
What is the difference between virtuous karma and non-virtuous karma?
Virtuous (wholesome) karma, driven by positive intentions, leads to pleasant experiences and higher rebirths within samsāra, or can support the path to liberation. Non-virtuous (unwholesome) karma, driven by negative intentions and afflictions, leads to suffering and lower rebirths.
68
Can even rebirths in higher realms of samsāra
like god realms, provide lasting happiness?,No, rebirths in higher realms are still impermanent and subject to the pervasive duḥkha of conditioning. The great bliss experienced there eventually exhausts the positive karma that caused it, leading to the suffering of death and often a subsequent lower rebirth.
69
What is 'renunciation' in the context of samsāra and duḥkha?
It is the deeply felt, firm determination to be free from all forms of duḥkha within cyclic existence, including its causes, and to attain the lasting peace of nirvāṇa.
70
How does a proper understanding of duḥkha lead to renunciation?
By thoroughly seeing the inherent, pervasive suffering and unsatisfactoriness of all samsāric states and experiences, one loses interest in their deceptive allure and sincerely desires true, lasting freedom.
71
What are the three root afflictions
also known as the three poisons?,Ignorance (or unawareness), attachment (or craving, desire), and aversion (or anger, hatred).
72
From which root affliction do attachment and aversion primarily arise?
They primarily arise from ignorance, which misapprehends the nature of objects, superimposing attractiveness or repulsiveness.
73
Beyond the three root afflictions
what are some other common afflictions?,Pride, afflicted doubt, afflicted views (such as the view of a transitory collection as a real, permanent self, or views denying karma).
74
How does pride function as an affliction?
It is an inflated and distorted sense of self-importance based on misapprehending one's own qualities, possessions, or status, leading to arrogance and hindering learning and compassion.
75
What is the difference between ordinary doubt and afflicted doubt?
Ordinary doubt can motivate investigation and lead to wisdom, while afflicted doubt is characterized by indecisiveness, skepticism, or vacillation rooted in ignorance or wrong views that hinders progress on the spiritual path.
76
How do afflictions obscure the mind's natural clarity?
They agitate and disturb the mind, distort perception, create mental biases, and prevent insight into the true nature of reality, much like mud clouds clear water.
77
Is it possible to temporarily suppress afflictions?
Yes, through practices like mundane concentration meditation or by temporarily changing external conditions, afflictions can be suppressed, but they can only be permanently eradicated at their root by wisdom.
78
What is the ultimate antidote to all afflictions?
The wisdom that directly realizes emptiness (śūnyatā) – the lack of inherent or independent existence of the self and all phenomena.
79
What are the four main characteristics of karma?
(1) Karma is definite: specific actions lead to corresponding results (happiness from virtue, suffering from non-virtue). (2) Karma multiplies: small actions can produce significantly larger results. (3) One does not experience the results of karma one has not created. (4) Karmic imprints created are never lost without ripening or being purified; they will eventually bring their effect.
80
How does the law of karma explain the diversity of experiences and rebirths among beings?
The vast variety of pleasant and painful experiences, as well as the different forms and circumstances of rebirth among sentient beings, are due to the ripening of their unique accumulation of past virtuous and non-virtuous actions.
81
Does karma imply fatalism or predetermination?
No, while past karma influences current experiences and predispositions, one has the freedom in the present moment to create new karma through intentional actions, thereby shaping one's future experiences and spiritual development.
82
What are the three types of karma classified by when their results are experienced?
Karma ripening in the present lifetime, karma ripening in the immediately following lifetime, and karma ripening in subsequent future lifetimes beyond the next one.
83
What is 'throwing karma' (or projecting karma)?
A powerful karma, either virtuous or non-virtuous, that has the force to project or determine the nature of a future rebirth in a particular realm of samsāra (e.g., human, animal, god realm).
84
What is 'completing karma' (or particularizing karma)?
Karma that shapes the specific details, circumstances, and experiences (such as lifespan, health, resources, specific sufferings or joys) within a rebirth that has been projected by a throwing karma.
85
Can the effects of negative karma be purified?
Yes, the imprints of negative karma can be purified and their ripening as suffering can be prevented or mitigated through sincere engagement in purification practices, such as the four opponent powers: (1) the power of regret for the harmful action, (2) the power of reliance (taking refuge and generating bodhicitta), (3) the power of applying remedial actions (such as meditation, recitation of mantras, prostrations, offering service), and (4) the power of resolve (the determination not to repeat the action).
86
What is nirvāṇa in the context of duḥkha?
Nirvāṇa is the complete cessation of all duḥkha (suffering) and its fundamental causes, primarily karma and afflictions rooted in ignorance. It is a state of lasting peace, freedom, and true happiness beyond cyclic existence.
87
How does understanding the pervasiveness of duḥkha motivate one to seek nirvāṇa?
When one deeply realizes that no samsāric state, however pleasant temporarily, can offer true, reliable, or lasting happiness and is ultimately of the nature of suffering, the aspiration for the complete liberation of nirvāṇa naturally arises.
88
What are the 'Three Higher Trainings' that lead to liberation from duḥkha?
The higher training in ethical conduct (śīla), the higher training in meditative concentration (samādhi), and the higher training in wisdom (prajñā).
89
How does ethical conduct contribute to overcoming duḥkha?
It helps to abandon harmful physical, verbal, and mental actions that create suffering for oneself and others, purifies negative karma, and creates a stable, calm mind conducive to developing concentration and wisdom.
90
How does meditative concentration contribute to overcoming duḥkha?
It calms the mind, overcomes mental distractions and dullness, develops mental pliancy and clarity, and allows for the sustained, focused insight necessary to develop the wisdom that eradicates the root of duḥkha.
91
How does wisdom
particularly the wisdom realizing emptiness, contribute to overcoming duḥkha?,It directly counteracts and eradicates ignorance, the fundamental root cause of all afflictions and contaminated karma, thereby cutting the cycle of samsāric suffering at its source and leading to liberation.
92
What is the role of refuge in the Buddha
Dharma, and Saṅgha in the context of dealing with duḥkha?,Taking refuge means entrusting oneself to: the Buddha as the infallible guide who has overcome duḥkha and shows the path; the Dharma as the actual path (teachings and realizations) and the true cessation of duḥkha; and the Saṅgha as the realized practitioners and supportive companions who help one progress on the path out of duḥkha.
93
How does reflecting on one's own experience of duḥkha help in developing compassion for others?
By deeply understanding our own suffering, its causes, and our wish to be free from it, we can genuinely empathize with other sentient beings who also experience similar, if not worse, forms of duḥkha and wish for their freedom as well.
94
What is 'great compassion' (mahākaruṇā)?
It is the profound and impartial wish for all sentient beings, without exception, to be completely free from all forms of duḥkha and the causes of duḥkha.
95
How is the understanding of the different types of duḥkha crucial for cultivating profound compassion?
Recognizing not just the obvious duḥkha of pain, but also the duḥkha of change and especially the pervasive duḥkha of conditioning that affects all unenlightened beings, allows one to see the full extent of their suffering. This deepens the compassionate wish for their ultimate liberation, not just relief from temporary problems.
96
What is bodhicitta?
Bodhicitta is the altruistic and courageous aspiration to attain full enlightenment (Buddhahood) for the primary purpose of being able to effectively lead all sentient beings out of their suffering in samsāra and to the state of perfect Buddhahood.
97
How does the truth of duḥkha serve as a foundation for generating bodhicitta?
Recognizing the vast and pervasive nature of suffering (duḥkha) experienced by all beings throughout cyclic existence, and understanding that only a fully enlightened Buddha has the complete wisdom, compassion, and skillful means to liberate them, motivates the practitioner to generate bodhicitta.
98
Why is understanding the suffering of cyclic existence important for a bodhisattva?
It strengthens their renunciation of their own samsāric attachments, fuels their unbearable compassion for others trapped in suffering, and reinforces their resolve to persevere on the long and arduous bodhisattva path to attain enlightenment for the benefit of all.
99
Can one become attached to the Dharma or crave liberation in an unhealthy way?
Genuine appreciation for the Dharma and aspiration for liberation are virtuous. However, if these lead to developing an ego-identity as a 'superior practitioner,' arrogance, or an obsessive, anxious clinging, it reflects a misunderstanding of the Dharma, which aims to reduce grasping, not create new forms of it.
100
What is the relationship between true duḥkha and true origins
the first two Noble Truths?,True duḥkha is the unsatisfactory condition, the 'illness' we experience within cyclic existence. True origins are the causes of this illness, primarily the afflictions (kleśas) like ignorance, attachment, and aversion, and the contaminated actions (karma) they motivate.
101
What is the significance of the Buddha's teaching that true duḥkha is 'to be known'?
It emphasizes that liberation begins with a conscious, investigative, and deeply penetrative understanding of our current state of suffering, not just a superficial acknowledgment or passive acceptance. This knowing becomes a powerful impetus for change.
102
In what way are the contaminated aggregates (form
feeling, discrimination, compositional factors, consciousness) a direct illustration of the pervasive duḥkha of conditioning?,These five aggregates, which constitute our ordinary experience of 'self' and 'world,' are inherently unsatisfactory because they are produced by and under the control of past ignorance, afflictions, and karma. They are momentary, subject to constant change, and serve as a direct basis for experiencing present and future suffering, simply by virtue of their conditioned and contaminated nature.
103
How does reflecting on the impermanent nature of all samsāric phenomena help in understanding the duḥkha of change?
By keenly observing that all conditioned things, including pleasant experiences, relationships, possessions, and even our own bodies, are constantly changing, decaying, and eventually ceasing, one recognizes their inherent unreliability as sources of lasting happiness. This understanding reveals the suffering inherent in relying on or clinging to the impermanent.
104
What is the ultimate value of human life when considering the truth of duḥkha?
While still subject to the general duḥkha of samsāra, a precious human life provides the optimal conditions – including intelligence, leisure from overwhelming suffering, and access to spiritual teachings – to not only thoroughly understand the nature and causes of duḥkha but also to actively practice the path leading to its complete and permanent cessation (nirvāṇa and enlightenment).
105
How can understanding the concept of 'emptiness' (śūnyatā) ultimately free one from all forms of duḥkha?
By realizing through wisdom that the self (persons) and all other phenomena (dharmas) lack inherent, independent, or true existence (i.e., they are empty of such an imagined status), the fundamental ignorance that grasps at such an inherent existence is eliminated. Since this ignorance is the root of all afflictions and contaminated karma, its eradication cuts the cycle of samsāric suffering at its very foundation.
106
What is the difference in scope between the duḥkha recognized by a practitioner seeking personal liberation (arhatship) and a bodhisattva?
While both deeply recognize their own personal duḥkha and seek liberation from it, a bodhisattva's understanding and concern extend to encompass the duḥkha experienced by all sentient beings throughout all realms of samsāra. This universal perspective fuels their great compassion and the aspiration to attain Buddhahood to benefit everyone.
107
Does the recognition of duḥkha lead to pessimism in Buddhism?
No, quite the opposite. The honest and realistic recognition of duḥkha is not intended to induce despair but to awaken a sense of urgency and inspire diligent effort on the path. It leads to a practical optimism rooted in the knowledge that duḥkha has causes that can be eliminated and that a state of lasting peace (nirvāṇa) is attainable.
108
How is the experience of duḥkha in the desire realm different from that in the form or formless realms?
The desire realm is characterized by grosser forms of both suffering (e.g., physical pain, hunger, aggression) and pleasure, which are heavily reliant on sensory objects. The form and formless realms, attained through deep meditation, involve more subtle mental states and are free from the coarser sufferings of the desire realm, yet they are still impermanent and pervaded by the subtle duḥkha of conditioning, ultimately not providing true liberation.
109
Why is it said that even the gods in the higher realms eventually experience duḥkha?
Although gods in the desire, form, and formless realms may experience immense pleasure and have extremely long lifespans, their existence is still conditioned and impermanent. Upon the exhaustion of the good karma that caused their celestial rebirth, they experience the profound suffering of impending death, the loss of their divine status, and the clear vision of a likely lower rebirth, which can be a terrifying experience.
110
What is the relationship between understanding the truth of duḥkha and developing faith or confidence in the Three Jewels?
A sincere recognition of the pervasive nature of duḥkha and the desire to be free from it naturally leads one to seek a reliable refuge and a proven path. This fosters genuine faith and confidence in the Buddha as the enlightened guide who has overcome duḥkha, the Dharma as the actual teachings and path that lead to cessation, and the Saṅgha as the realized community who embody the path and provide support.
111
What is the significance of understanding that duḥkha is not intrinsic to our being?
It allows for the possibility of its cessation, as duḥkha arises from causes that can be eliminated, revealing the mind's pure nature (Buddha nature).
112
How does the concept of Buddha nature relate to the potential to overcome duḥkha?
Buddha nature is the inherent potential for enlightenment within all sentient beings, meaning that duḥkha and its causes are adventitious and removable.
113
What are 'adventitious stains' in relation to duḥkha and Buddha nature?
They are the afflictions and their latencies that temporarily obscure the mind's inherently pure nature but are not part of that nature itself, thus they can be removed.
114
Can you briefly explain the first link of the twelve links of dependent origination
ignorance (avidyā)?,It is the fundamental unawareness of the true nature of reality, particularly the lack of inherent existence of the self and phenomena, and it is the root of samsāra and duḥkha.
115
What is the second link
karmic formations (saṃskāra), in the twelve links?,These are volitional actions (karma) motivated by ignorance, which create predispositions for future rebirths and experiences of duḥkha.
116
What is the third link
consciousness (vijñāna), in the twelve links?,This refers to the consciousness that is propelled by karmic formations and carries the seeds of future rebirth into a new existence.
117
What is the fourth link
name and form (nāmarūpa), in the twelve links?,'Name' refers to the mental aggregates (feeling, discrimination, compositional factors, consciousness) and 'form' refers to the physical aggregate, which constitute the psycho-physical being in a new rebirth.
118
What is the fifth link
the six sense sources (ṣaḍāyatana), in the twelve links?,These are the six internal sense faculties (eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, mental faculty) that are the basis for sensory and mental experiences.
119
What is the sixth link
contact (sparśa), in the twelve links?,This is the meeting of a sense faculty, its object, and the corresponding consciousness, which is the condition for the arising of feeling.
120
What is the seventh link
feeling (vedanā), in the twelve links?,This refers to the pleasant, unpleasant, or neutral sensations that arise from contact. These feelings often lead to craving or aversion.
121
What is the eighth link
craving (tṛṣṇā), in the twelve links?,This is the desire for pleasant feelings to continue and for unpleasant feelings to cease, or the craving for existence and to avoid non-existence, which fuels further becoming.
122
What is the ninth link
grasping (upādāna), in the twelve links?,This is an intensified form of craving, where one actively clings to objects of desire, views, rules and observances, or a sense of self.
123
What is the tenth link
becoming (bhava), in the twelve links?,This refers to the karmic actions that are fully potentiated by craving and grasping, leading directly to a new rebirth in samsāra.
124
What are the eleventh and twelfth links
birth (jāti) and aging and death (jarāmaraṇa), in the twelve links?,'Birth' is the actual arising in a new existence, and 'aging and death' encompass the entire spectrum of suffering, decay, and eventual demise within that new life.
125
How does understanding the twelve links help in overcoming duḥkha?
It reveals the specific causal process by which duḥkha is perpetuated, allowing one to identify key points (like ignorance or craving) where the chain can be broken.
126
What is the difference between conceptual and non-conceptual understanding of duḥkha?
Conceptual understanding is intellectual, while non-conceptual understanding is a direct, experiential insight, often gained through meditation, which is more transformative.
127
How does the practice of mindfulness contribute to understanding and alleviating duḥkha?
Mindfulness allows one to observe thoughts, feelings, and sensations without immediate judgment or reaction, breaking habitual patterns that lead to duḥkha.
128
What role does meditative serenity (śamatha) play in dealing with duḥkha?
It calms the mind, reduces mental agitation caused by afflictions, and provides a stable platform for developing insight (vipaśyanā) into the nature of duḥkha and its causes.
129
What role does insight (vipaśyanā) play in uprooting duḥkha?
Insight, particularly into impermanence, selflessness, and emptiness, directly counteracts the ignorance that is the root of all duḥkha.
130
How does the duḥkha of others become a primary motivator for a bodhisattva?
A bodhisattva's great compassion is aroused by seeing all beings trapped in the various forms of duḥkha, compelling them to seek enlightenment to help liberate all.
131
What are the 'four immeasurables' and how do they relate to countering duḥkha?
Love (wishing happiness), compassion (wishing freedom from duḥkha), joy (rejoicing in others' happiness and virtue), and equanimity (impartiality towards all beings). They counter self-centeredness and expand concern for others' duḥkha.
132
How does the perfection of generosity (dāna pāramitā) help alleviate duḥkha?
It alleviates the duḥkha of poverty and need for others, and for the giver, it counters the duḥkha arising from miserliness and attachment.
133
How does the perfection of ethical conduct (śīla pāramitā) help alleviate duḥkha?
It prevents actions that cause duḥkha for oneself and others, both now and in the future, and creates a foundation of trust and well-being.
134
How does the perfection of fortitude/patience (kṣānti pāramitā) help alleviate duḥkha?
It enables one to endure hardships, provocations from others, and the profound truths of Dharma without anger or discouragement, thus preventing much mental duḥkha.
135
How does the perfection of joyous effort (vīrya pāramitā) help alleviate duḥkha?
It provides the sustained energy and enthusiasm needed to engage in practices that overcome duḥkha, countering laziness and despondency.
136
How does the perfection of meditative stability (dhyāna pāramitā) help alleviate duḥkha?
It brings mental peace and clarity, overcoming the duḥkha of distraction and mental agitation, and is essential for developing wisdom.
137
How does the perfection of wisdom (prajñā pāramitā) directly uproot duḥkha?
It realizes emptiness, thereby eradicating the ignorance that is the fundamental cause of all samsāric duḥkha.
138
What is 'equalizing self and others' and how does it relate to duḥkha?
It is a meditation where one recognizes that just as I wish to be free from duḥkha and have happiness, so do all others equally, breaking down self-centered barriers.
139
What is 'exchanging self and others' (tonglen) as a practice related to duḥkha?
It involves mentally taking on the duḥkha of others and giving them one's own happiness and virtue, a powerful practice for developing compassion and reducing self-grasping.
140
Why is bodhicitta considered the 'king of trainings' for overcoming the deepest duḥkha?
Because it aims for the highest goal (Buddhahood) for the sake of all beings, encompassing all other virtuous practices and leading to the complete eradication of all types of duḥkha for self and others.
141
How does the ignorance grasping at a truly existent self (ātmagrāha) lead to duḥkha?
This grasping is the basis for afflictions like attachment and aversion, which in turn motivate actions (karma) that result in samsāric suffering.
142
What is the 'self of persons' that is to be negated according to the Prāsaṅgika Madhyamaka school?
A self that exists inherently, independently, or from its own side, findable under analysis.
143
What is the 'selflessness of persons' (pudgalanairātmya)?
The understanding that persons lack an inherently existent, independent self.
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What is the 'selflessness of phenomena' (dharmanairātmya)?
The understanding that all phenomena, including the aggregates and external objects, lack inherent existence.
145
How does realizing the selflessness of persons reduce duḥkha?
It undermines the basis for self-cherishing, self-importance, and afflictions related to "I" and "mine."
146
How does realizing the selflessness of phenomena reduce duḥkha?
It undermines attachment and aversion towards external objects and situations by revealing their lack of inherent attractiveness or repulsiveness.
147
What are the two truths – conventional truth (saṃvṛti-satya) and ultimate truth (paramārtha-satya)?
Conventional truths are how things appear and function validly in the world; ultimate truths are their final mode of existence, their emptiness of inherent existence.
148
How does understanding the two truths help in navigating duḥkha and the path to its cessation?
It allows one to engage skillfully with conventional reality while simultaneously understanding its ultimate lack of inherent existence, preventing nihilism or eternalism.
149
According to the Prāsaṅgika school
is emptiness a separate reality from conventional appearances?,No, emptiness is the very nature of conventional appearances; phenomena are empty of inherent existence while still appearing and functioning conventionally (appearing and empty).
150
What is the meaning of 'dependent arising' (pratītyasamutpāda) in relation to emptiness?
Phenomena are empty of inherent existence precisely because they arise in dependence on causes, conditions, parts, and conceptual designation. Dependent arising is the king of reasons for proving emptiness.
151
How does meditation on emptiness act as a direct antidote to ignorance
the root of duḥkha?,By familiarizing the mind with the reality of no-self and no inherent existence, it directly counteracts and eventually eradicates the ignorance that grasps at inherent existence.
152
What is the difference between an inferential realization of emptiness and a direct realization?
Inferential realization is conceptual, based on reasoning. Direct realization is non-conceptual, a direct perception of emptiness by a wisdom consciousness.
153
Which type of realization of emptiness is necessary to completely eradicate the afflictive obscurations and thus achieve liberation from duḥkha?
A direct, non-conceptual realization of emptiness.
154
What are 'afflictive obscurations' (kleśāvaraṇa) that are removed by realizing emptiness
leading to liberation from duḥkha?,These are the afflictions themselves and their seeds, which are the primary cause of rebirth in samsāra.
155
What are 'cognitive obscurations' (jñeyāvaraṇa) that are also removed by realizing emptiness
leading to full enlightenment (Buddhahood)?,These are the subtle imprints of ignorance that prevent omniscience, the full knowledge of all phenomena. Their removal allows for the complete manifestation of a Buddha's wisdom.
156
What is the role of 'inappropriate attention' (ayoniśo manasikāra) in generating duḥkha?
It is a way of misconstruing phenomena, for example, seeing the impermanent as permanent, the unsatisfactory as satisfactory, or the not-self as self, which fuels afflictions.
157
How does the Buddhist view of 'no-self' (anātman) differ from nihilism?
It negates an inherently existent, independent, permanent self, but does not negate the conventional self that performs actions, experiences results, and can attain liberation.
158
Can duḥkha itself be a teacher on the spiritual path?
Yes, reflecting on duḥkha can motivate renunciation, compassion, and the search for wisdom, thereby transforming it into a condition for spiritual growth.
159
What is the meaning of 'impermanence' (anityā) and how does its realization help with duḥkha?
All conditioned phenomena are subject to change and cessation. Realizing this reduces attachment to fleeting pleasures and prepares the mind for inevitable losses, mitigating the duḥkha of change.
160
What is the difference between 'coarse impermanence' and 'subtle impermanence'?
Coarse impermanence is the observable cessation of things (e.g., death, a cup breaking). Subtle impermanence is the moment-to-moment change that all conditioned phenomena undergo.
161
How does understanding subtle impermanence help to undermine grasping at a permanent self
a root of duḥkha?,By seeing that our mind and body are changing in every moment, the notion of a fixed, unchanging self becomes untenable.
162
What are the 'four seals' or 'four characteristics of the Dharma' that summarize the Buddhist view
including duḥkha?,(1) All conditioned phenomena are impermanent. (2) All contaminated phenomena are duḥkha. (3) All phenomena are empty and selfless. (4) Nirvāṇa is peace.
163
How does understanding the first seal
'all conditioned phenomena are impermanent,' relate to the second seal, 'all contaminated phenomena are duḥkha'?,Because conditioned phenomena are impermanent, clinging to them as if they were lasting sources of happiness inevitably leads to the duḥkha of change and disappointment.
164
How does the third seal
'all phenomena are empty and selfless,' explain the root of duḥkha?,Grasping at a non-existent self and inherent existence of phenomena (ignorance of this seal) is the root of contaminated actions and afflictions, which are duḥkha.
165
How does the fourth seal
'nirvāṇa is peace,' offer a solution to duḥkha?,It points to the attainable state of complete freedom from duḥkha and its causes, achieved through the path.
166
What are the 'three turnings of the wheel of Dharma' and how do they relate to the understanding of duḥkha?
The first turning primarily taught the Four Noble Truths (including duḥkha). The second turning taught emptiness (the profound nature of duḥkha and its cessation). The third turning clarified Buddha nature and the luminous nature of mind.
167
How can one distinguish between 'worldly happiness' and the 'happiness of Dharma' or 'supramundane happiness'?
Worldly happiness is temporary, dependent on external conditions, and often tinged with the duḥkha of change. Dharma happiness arises from inner peace, wisdom, and compassion, and is more stable and profound.
168
Is it possible to experience joy and happiness on the Buddhist path even while acknowledging duḥkha?
Yes, the path itself cultivates inner joy, contentment, and peace, which are distinct from fleeting worldly pleasures. Acknowledging duḥkha provides motivation, not perpetual gloom.
169
What is the role of a spiritual mentor or guru in guiding a practitioner to understand and overcome duḥkha?
A qualified mentor provides accurate teachings, clarifies doubts, gives personal guidance, and inspires the practitioner through their own example of having progressed on the path away from duḥkha.
170
How does the practice of 'analytical meditation' help in understanding duḥkha?
It involves systematically examining the nature of one's experiences, the causes of suffering, and the concepts of self and phenomena, leading to intellectual conviction that can then be deepened in placement meditation.
171
What is 'placement meditation' in relation to insights about duḥkha gained through analysis?
After an analytical understanding is gained (e.g., about impermanence or the nature of an affliction), placement meditation involves single-pointedly focusing on that understanding to deeply familiarize the mind with it.
172
How does 'equanimity' (upekṣā) developed through meditation help in relation to duḥkha?
It fosters a balanced and impartial mind, free from strong attachment or aversion, allowing one to face life's ups and downs (which are forms of duḥkha) with greater stability.
173
Can animals experience the three types of duḥkha?
Yes, animals clearly experience the duḥkha of pain. They also experience the duḥkha of change (e.g., loss of comfort), and their existence is pervaded by the duḥkha of conditioning due to being under the sway of karma and afflictions.
174
What specific duḥkha do hungry ghosts (pretas) typically experience?
Intense hunger and thirst, frustration from being unable to satisfy their desires, and often fear and paranoia.
175
What specific duḥkha do hell-beings typically experience?
Overwhelming and prolonged experiences of intense heat, cold, or other forms of physical and mental torture, arising from extremely negative karma.
176
How can reflecting on the specific sufferings of lower realms (animals
hungry ghosts, hell-beings) motivate Dharma practice?,It intensifies the appreciation for one's own human rebirth and its opportunities, and strengthens the resolve to avoid creating causes for such rebirths and to attain liberation from all samsāric suffering.
177
What is the duḥkha of uncertainty in cyclic existence?
The fact that our future rebirths, circumstances, and experiences within samsāra are unpredictable and largely out of our control, dependent on the ripening of countless past karmas.
178
What is the duḥkha of dissatisfaction in cyclic existence?
No matter how much samsāric pleasure, wealth, or status one attains, there is an underlying sense of incompleteness and a craving for more, leading to perpetual dissatisfaction.
179
What is the duḥkha of repeatedly abandoning the body in cyclic existence?
The suffering associated with death, the separation from loved ones and possessions, and the fear and uncertainty of the next rebirth, which occurs life after life.
180
What is the duḥkha of repeatedly taking rebirth in cyclic existence?
The suffering of being uncontrollably reborn again and again, experiencing the vulnerabilities and limitations of each new life form.
181
What is the duḥkha of repeatedly changing status in cyclic existence?
The instability of samsāric existence, where one can fall from high states (e.g., a god) to low states (e.g., a hell-being) and vice versa, with no lasting security.
182
What is the duḥkha of experiencing suffering alone in cyclic existence?
Ultimately, one faces birth, sickness, old age, death, and the consequences of one's karma individually, without true companionship that can share or remove these burdens.
183
How does the "truth of duḥkha" relate to a scientific or psychological understanding of human suffering?
Buddhism offers a comprehensive framework that includes mental and emotional suffering recognized by psychology, but extends it to include subtler forms of unsatisfactoriness rooted in existential conditioning and karma, offering a path to its ultimate cessation.
184
What is the difference between pain and duḥkha?
Pain is a specific unpleasant sensation or experience. Duḥkha is a broader term encompassing all forms of unsatisfactoriness, including pain, the impermanence of pleasure, and the fundamental conditioning of being in samsāra.
185
Why is the "duḥkha of change" difficult for many people to recognize as suffering?
Because it applies to experiences that are initially perceived as pleasant. The suffering aspect becomes apparent only when those pleasant things change, cease, or lead to longing and dissatisfaction.
186
How can one cultivate awareness of the "pervasive duḥkha of conditioning" in daily life?
By reflecting on how our ordinary existence is constantly under the influence of subtle mental afflictions, karmic predispositions, and the impermanent nature of our aggregates, even in moments that seem neutral or peaceful.
187
What is the primary motivation behind the Buddha teaching the truth of duḥkha?
Out of compassion, to awaken beings to their true situation so they would be inspired to seek and follow the path to complete liberation and lasting happiness.
188
In the context of the Four Noble Truths
how does knowing duḥkha lead to understanding its origin?,Once duḥkha is clearly identified and acknowledged, the natural next step is to investigate and understand what causes it to arise.
189
What is the relationship between ethical discipline (śīla) and reducing the duḥkha of pain?
Ethical discipline involves refraining from harmful actions (killing, stealing, lying, etc.) that directly cause physical and mental pain for oneself and others, both in the present and future.
190
How can contemplating the impermanence of duḥkha itself provide some relief?
Recognizing that even painful experiences are not permanent and will eventually change can reduce feelings of hopelessness and increase resilience.
191
What does it mean to say that duḥkha is "to be understood comprehensively"?
It means not just acknowledging its existence, but investigating its various types, its subtle forms, its causes, and its pervasive nature throughout all conditioned existence.
192
How does the pursuit of temporary samsāric pleasures often perpetuate duḥkha in the long run?
By reinforcing attachment, creating more karma, and distracting from the pursuit of lasting liberation, thus keeping one bound to the cycle of suffering.
193
Can the understanding of duḥkha be a source of compassion for oneself?
Yes, recognizing one's own entanglement in duḥkha can lead to self-compassion, which is a healthy basis for wanting to free oneself from suffering and its causes.
194
How does the Buddhist concept of duḥkha challenge the common societal emphasis on seeking happiness primarily through external means?
It points out that external sources of happiness are inherently unreliable and temporary, and that true, lasting happiness comes from inner transformation and wisdom.
195
What is the ultimate "illness" that the Buddha
as the "supreme physician," diagnosed with the truth of duḥkha?,The fundamental illness is being trapped in cyclic existence (samsāra) due to ignorance, afflictions, and karma.
196
Why is renunciation not about self-deprivation but about wisdom regarding duḥkha?
True renunciation arises from clearly seeing the unsatisfactory nature of samsāric pursuits, leading to a joyful willingness to let go of them in favor of a more meaningful and liberating path.
197
How can reflecting on the duḥkha experienced by all mothers in countless past lives deepen compassion?
Recognizing that all sentient beings have been our mothers and have undergone immense suffering for our sake can evoke profound gratitude and a strong compassionate wish to repay their kindness by liberating them from duḥkha.
198
What is the connection between understanding duḥkha and the practice of taking refuge in the Three Jewels?
Recognizing the pervasiveness of duḥkha and our inability to escape it on our own leads to seeking refuge in the Buddha (the guide), the Dharma (the path), and the Saṅgha (the companions).
199
How does the duḥkha of conditioning highlight the unsatisfactory nature even of neutral feelings?
Even when not experiencing overt pleasure or pain, the fact that our existence is conditioned by karma and afflictions means we are still vulnerable to future suffering and not truly free.
200
Ultimately
what is the most profound way to go beyond all forms of duḥkha according to the Mahāyāna path?,To attain full enlightenment (Buddhahood) by cultivating bodhicitta and realizing the wisdom of emptiness, thereby eliminating both afflictive and cognitive obscurations for the benefit of all sentient beings.
