True Origins of Duḥkha Flashcards
Chapter 3 (225 cards)
1
Q
What are identified as the true origins of duḥkha according to the Buddha?
A
Afflictions (kleshas) and karma.
2
Q
From what do karmic actions (karma) primarily arise?
A
Afflictions (kleshas).
3
Q
What is considered the chief among all afflictions?
A
Ignorance (avidyā).
4
Q
What is the main focus of a chapter on ‘True Origins of Duḥkha’?
A
To examine the defilements (afflictive mental factors) that are the origins of duḥkha.
5
Q
What aspect of Buddhist teachings reveals parts of our minds we might be oblivious to?
A
Buddhist psychology, particularly its analysis of mental factors.
6
Q
What kind of mental factors are explained in the context of producing duḥkha?
A
Afflictive mental factors (kleshas).
7
Q
What is the recommended attitude when approaching the topic of afflictions?
A
To use the knowledge gained to free ourselves from them, rather than for self-criticism.
8
Q
What potential do all beings have regarding mental defilements?
A
The potential to free themselves from defilements and attain a state of true peace.
9
Q
What do afflictive mental factors keep us bound in?
A
Cyclic existence (samsara).
10
Q
What do afflictive mental factors prevent our attainment of?
A
Nirvāṇa (liberation) and full awakening (buddhahood).
11
Q
Why is it important not to think ‘What a bad person I am!’ when learning about one’s own defilements?
A
Because the purpose of learning about them is to gain the knowledge and power to overcome them, recognizing our potential for purification.
12
Q
What is the most fundamental root affliction that underlies all others?
A
Ignorance (avidyā).
13
Q
What does ignorance (avidyā) primarily misapprehend regarding persons and phenomena?
A
Their ultimate nature, specifically their lack of inherent or independent existence (emptiness or selflessness).
14
Q
How does ignorance (avidyā) serve as the foundation for other afflictions like attachment and anger?
A
It creates a mistaken perception of reality, upon which distorted emotions and reactions are built.
15
Q
What is the primary object of ignorance when it relates to the ‘self’ or ‘I’?
A
It grasps at an inherently existent, independent self or ‘I’.
16
Q
What is the primary object of ignorance when it relates to phenomena other than the self?
A
It grasps at the inherent existence or independent nature of these other phenomena.
17
Q
Is ignorance (avidyā) merely a passive lack of knowledge, or is it an active misconception?
A
It is an active misapprehension, an incorrect way of cognizing reality that superimposes a false nature onto objects.
18
Q
What are the two principal types of ignorance often discussed in relation to suffering?
A
Ignorance of the ultimate nature of reality (emptiness/selflessness) and ignorance of the law of cause and effect (karma).
19
Q
Which specific type of ignorance is considered the fundamental root of cyclic existence (samsara)?
A
The ignorance that grasps at inherent existence (ignorance of the ultimate nature).
20
Q
How does ignorance (avidyā) function to perpetuate the cycle of suffering?
A
By creating a deluded view of reality, which in turn gives rise to afflicted emotions and motivates karmic actions that lead to further rebirth and duḥkha.
21
Q
What is the direct and ultimate antidote to ignorance (avidyā)?
A
The wisdom (prajñā) that directly realizes emptiness (śūnyatā) or selflessness (anātman).
22
Q
Does ignorance (avidyā) only obscure the true nature of persons, or does it also extend to all other phenomena?
A
It obscures the true nature of both persons and all other conditioned and unconditioned phenomena.
23
Q
How can ignorance regarding the law of cause and effect (karma) be detrimental to one’s well-being?
A
It can lead to engaging in harmful actions and neglecting virtuous ones, thereby creating the causes for future suffering.
24
Q
What is ‘unawareness’ (sometimes used synonymously with a type of ignorance) in specific contexts?
A
Being obscured or unclear regarding specific important points, such as the details of the Four Noble Truths, the workings of karma, or the benefits of the path.
25
Can the innate form of ignorance be subtle and challenging to recognize in one's own mind?
Yes, the innate ignorance grasping at inherent existence is very subtle and deeply ingrained.
26
What is the relationship between ignorance (avidyā) and the twelve links of dependent origination (pratītyasamutpāda)?
Ignorance is traditionally taught as the first of the twelve links, driving the entire chain reaction that constitutes cyclic existence.
27
What is the object-aspect (ālambana-ākāra) of ignorance (avidyā) when it grasps at something?
It apprehends its object (e.g., the self) as possessing a fantasized nature (e.g., inherent existence) that the object actually lacks.
28
Does ignorance only arise towards persons and phenomena, or can it also manifest as an obscuration regarding the spiritual path and the goal of cessation?
Yes, ignorance can manifest as an obscuration regarding the nature of the true path and the reality and qualities of true cessation (nirvāṇa).
29
What is 'co-emergent' or 'innate' ignorance (sahaja-avidyā)?
The instinctive, unlearned, and continuously present grasping at inherent existence that has been with sentient beings from beginningless time.
30
What is 'intellectually acquired' or 'imputed' ignorance (parikalpita-avidyā)?
Ignorance that is learned, adopted, and reinforced through incorrect philosophical systems, wrong tenets, or flawed reasoning.
31
Which of the two types of ignorance (innate or intellectually acquired) is generally more difficult to eradicate?
Innate ignorance is considered more difficult to eradicate due to its deep-seated and pervasive nature.
32
What is attachment (rāga or tṛṣṇā)?
An afflicted mental factor that observes a contaminated object, exaggerates its attractive qualities, and then desires to possess it, unite with it, or not be separated from it.
33
What is the typical object of attachment (rāga)?
Any contaminated phenomenon that appears pleasant, attractive, or capable of providing happiness to the deluded mind.
34
How does attachment (rāga) function as a cause of suffering (duḥkha)?
It leads to mental torment through longing, dissatisfaction when desires are unmet, fear of loss, and motivates actions to acquire or cling to objects, thereby creating negative karma.
35
What specific aspect does attachment (rāga) overestimate or superimpose onto its object?
The object's attractiveness, its stability, or its capacity to provide true and lasting happiness.
36
Is attachment (rāga) limited only to external material objects, or can it extend to other things?
It can extend to external objects, internal experiences (like pleasant feelings), ideas, views, reputation, relationships, and the concept of 'self'.
37
What is craving (tṛṣṇā) and how does it relate to attachment (rāga)?
Craving is an intensified form of attachment, characterized by an intense thirst, longing, or yearning for an object, experience, or state of being.
38
What are the three types of craving (tṛṣṇā) frequently mentioned in Buddhist teachings?
Craving for sensual pleasures (kāma-tṛṣṇā), craving for existence (bhava-tṛṣṇā), and craving for non-existence (vibhava-tṛṣṇā).
39
How does attachment (rāga), particularly in the form of craving, lead to future rebirths?
By creating powerful karmic imprints (seeds) and mental tendencies that propel consciousness towards future existences where similar objects of desire might be encountered.
40
What is the virtuous counterpart or antidote that counteracts attachment (rāga)?
Contentment, detachment, renunciation, or meditating on the unattractiveness/impermanence of objects of attachment.
41
Can attachment (rāga) arise for objects that are, in reality, neutral or even suffering in nature?
Yes, due to ignorance and projection, the mind can mistakenly perceive neutral or suffering phenomena as sources of pleasure and develop attachment to them.
42
How does attachment (rāga) contribute to mental agitation and lack of peace?
Through constant longing for the unattained, anxiety about losing what is attained, and dissatisfaction with the present.
43
What is the specific object focus of 'craving for sensual pleasures' (kāma-tṛṣṇā)?
Pleasurable experiences derived from the five senses: agreeable sights, sounds, smells, tastes, and tactile sensations.
44
What does 'craving for existence' (bhava-tṛṣṇā) refer to?
The deep-seated desire to continue existing, to be reborn, often in higher or more pleasant realms of samsara, or attachment to a permanent self.
45
What does 'craving for non-existence' (vibhava-tṛṣṇā) refer to?
The desire for annihilation or complete cessation of existence, often arising from intense suffering, despair, or adherence to nihilistic views.
46
How does attachment (rāga) act as a continuous 'source' or 'origin' (samudāya) of duḥkha?
It continuously gives rise to unfulfilled desires, new karmic actions, and further afflictions, all ofwhich result in ongoing suffering.
47
How does attachment (rāga) lead to the suffering characterized as 'seeking but not finding'?
By creating strong desires for objects or states that are either unattainable, difficult to acquire, or ultimately unsatisfactory even when acquired.
48
How does attachment (rāga) lead to the suffering characterized as 'protecting what one has and fearing its loss'?
By creating anxiety, stress, and possessiveness concerning objects, people, or situations one is attached to, due to their impermanent nature.
49
What is 'non-attachment' (arāga) in its virtuous Buddhist sense, as distinct from mere indifference or apathy?
A state of mind free from craving and clinging, rooted in wisdom (understanding impermanence and emptiness) and compassion, allowing for healthy engagement without grasping.
50
What is anger or aversion (dveṣa or pratigha)?
An afflicted mental factor that observes a disliked object, exaggerates its negative or repulsive qualities, and then wishes to harm it, destroy it, or be separated from it.
51
What are the typical objects that trigger anger or aversion (dveṣa)?
Beings, objects, situations, or even internal states that are perceived as unpleasant, threatening, frustrating, or obstructive to one's desires.
52
How does anger (dveṣa) function as a direct cause of suffering (duḥkha) for oneself and others?
It destroys one's own peace of mind, leads to harmful verbal or physical actions towards others, creates strong negative karma, and damages relationships.
53
What specific aspect does anger (dveṣa) overestimate or superimpose onto its object?
The object's unattractiveness, its capacity to cause harm, or its inherent obstructiveness, often blowing these out of proportion.
54
What is malice (vyāpāda), considered a form of anger (dveṣa)?
A specific mental state characterized by a wish to cause harm, pain, or suffering to other sentient beings.
55
What is resentment (upanāha), considered a form of anger (dveṣa)?
The act of holding onto ill will, grudges, or animosity from past perceived harms or offenses, refusing to forgive or let go of the anger.
56
What is the direct virtuous counterpart or antidote that counteracts anger/aversion (dveṣa)?
Patience (kṣānti), forbearance, loving-kindness (maitrī), or compassion (karuṇā).
57
How does anger (dveṣa) act as a major obstacle to spiritual progress and the development of positive qualities?
It creates powerful negative karmic imprints, makes the mind agitated and unsuitable for meditation, and directly opposes the cultivation of love and compassion.
58
Can anger (dveṣa) be directed towards oneself?
Yes, anger can manifest as self-criticism, self-hatred, or strong feelings of guilt and regret that are destructive rather than constructive.
59
What is the term 'pratigha' often translated as, in relation to dveṣa?
Hostility, antagonism, repugnance, or a strong reactive displeasure; often considered a more forceful or immediate aspect of aversion.
60
How does anger (dveṣa) contribute to creating a negative and unpeaceful mental environment?
It fills the mind with agitation, unhappiness, suspicion, and distorts perception, making neutral situations appear hostile.
61
Is anger (dveṣa) always expressed outwardly through aggressive behavior?
No, anger can be suppressed, internalized, or manifest as passive aggression, yet it still causes internal suffering and maintains negative mental patterns.
62
What is often an immediate consequence of acting out of strong anger (dveṣa)?
Regret, further escalation of conflict, and the creation of causes for future suffering.
63
How does impatience often relate to the arising of anger or frustration?
Impatience, the inability to tolerate delays or difficulties, is frequently a precursor or a milder manifestation of anger and frustration.
64
What is the purported effect of strong anger (dveṣa) on one's accumulated merit or virtue?
It is traditionally said to be extremely destructive of accumulated positive potential or merit.
65
Can anger (dveṣa) also manifest as subtle forms like irritation or frustration towards minor inconveniences?
Yes, these are often milder expressions of the same underlying afflicted mental factor of aversion.
66
Is there such a thing as 'righteous anger' from a Buddhist perspective on afflictions?
Generally, all anger rooted in the exaggeration of negativity and a wish to harm is considered an affliction. Actions motivated by compassion may appear forceful but are distinct from anger.
67
What is pride (māna)?
An afflicted mental factor that, based on a mistaken view of the self (grasping at an 'I'), feels inflated, superior, or self-important in relation to others or to a fantasized self-image.
68
What is the typical basis or focus for the arising of pride (māna)?
It commonly focuses on one's own perceived good qualities, such as lineage, wealth, beauty, intelligence, learning, status, accomplishments, or even mistakenly perceived spiritual attainments.
69
How does pride (māna) function as an obstacle to spiritual growth and a cause of suffering?
It prevents learning from others (especially spiritual teachers), creates arrogance and self-satisfaction, can lead to contempt or disrespect for others, obstructs humility, and reinforces self-grasping.
70
What are some of the different types of pride (māna) often enumerated in Buddhist texts?
Commonly seven (or nine) types are listed, such as pride of superiority, pride of equality (in a competitive sense), pride of inferiority (a paradoxical form), pride of 'I-am', pride of conceit, wrongful pride, etc.
71
What is 'pride of superiority' (also simply called māna, the first type)?
Feeling superior to those who are demonstrably inferior in some specific quality or attribute.
72
What is 'pride of being superior to one's equals' (atimāna, or pride exceeding pride)?
Feeling superior to those who are actually equal in a particular quality, based on an inflated self-assessment.
73
What is 'pride of being greatly superior even to one's superiors' (mānātimāna, or pride greatly exceeding pride)?
An extreme form of arrogance where one feels superior even to those who are clearly superior in a particular quality.
74
What is 'pride of 'I'' or 'I-am pride' (asmimāna)?
A subtle yet pervasive sense of 'I am' or 'I exist' that is rooted in the grasping at the five aggregates as a truly existent self; it is present even when not actively comparing with others.
75
What is 'pride of conceit' or 'conceited pride' (abhimāna)?
Thinking one has attained high qualities, realizations, or spiritual levels that one has not actually attained.
76
What is 'pride of unrighteousness' or 'wrongful pride' (mithyāmāna)?
Being proud of something that is actually a fault, a non-virtue, or a negative accomplishment (e.g., pride in being a successful thief).
77
What is 'pride of inferiority' or 'modest pride' (ūnamāna)?
A paradoxical form of pride where one feels uniquely or specially inferior to others, still with an excessive focus on the self and its perceived deficiencies, sometimes masking a subtle sense of superiority in one's 'humility'.
78
What is the specific object that pride (māna) fixates on and inflates?
The conventionally existent self or 'I', but imputing an exaggerated status, importance, or inherent goodness to it.
79
How does afflicted pride (māna) differ from healthy self-confidence or self-esteem?
Pride is based on a mistaken inflation of the self, often involves comparison and the belittling of others, and is rooted in self-grasping. Healthy self-confidence is a realistic and balanced assessment of one's abilities without arrogance or delusion.
80
What are some key antidotes to the affliction of pride (māna)?
Cultivating humility, reflecting on the kindness of others, contemplating one's own faults, considering the vastness of knowledge yet to be gained, or meditating on emptiness.
81
Does pride (māna) always involve an explicit act of looking down on others?
Often it does, or at least it involves an unwholesome self-elevation in relation to others, which implicitly devalues them or views them as a backdrop for one's own superiority.
82
How does pride (māna) prevent the arising of genuine respect for the Three Jewels (Buddha, Dharma, Sangha)?
By fostering a sense of self-sufficiency or superiority, one fails to see the profound qualities of the Three Jewels or the necessity of seeking refuge and guidance from them.
83
Can pride (māna) be a source of unwholesome competitiveness in spiritual or worldly pursuits?
Yes, when the motivation for excelling is primarily to establish oneself as superior to others or to gain praise, rather than for genuine development or benefiting others.
84
What is afflicted doubt (vicikitsā)?
An afflicted mental factor characterized by wavering, indecision, or oscillation of mind concerning crucial points of the Buddhist path, such as the Four Noble Truths, the law of karma, the nature of reality (emptiness), or the qualities of the Three Jewels.
85
How does afflicted doubt (vicikitsā) differ from investigative or reasonable doubt that can be part of learning?
Afflicted doubt is non-virtuous, creates mental disturbance, and paralyzes or hinders progress on the path. Investigative doubt, on the other hand, is a questioning attitude that motivates learning, inquiry, and deeper understanding, and is considered constructive.
86
What are the typical objects or topics towards which afflicted doubt (vicikitsā) is directed?
Fundamental Buddhist teachings like the validity of the law of cause and effect (karma), the ultimate nature of reality (emptiness), the possibility of achieving liberation, the qualities of the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha, or the efficacy of the path.
87
How does afflicted doubt (vicikitsā) function as an origin of suffering or an obstruction on the path?
It prevents one from engaging wholeheartedly and confidently in spiritual practice, creates mental unrest and confusion, and can lead to the adoption of wrong views or abandoning the path.
88
What is the characteristic state of mind when afflicted doubt (vicikitsā) is present?
Indecision, hesitation, mental oscillation between two or more possibilities without being able to arrive at a firm conviction, leading to a feeling of being unsettled.
89
What are some common causes or conditions that can give rise to afflicted doubt (vicikitsā)?
Lack of clear and thorough understanding of the teachings, the influence of misleading views or companions, insufficient engagement in study and critical reflection, or the ripening of negative karmic imprints.
90
What are effective antidotes to overcome afflicted doubt (vicikitsā)?
Gaining clear and deep understanding through diligent study of authentic teachings, engaging in critical reflection and logical analysis, meditating to gain experiential insight, and seeking guidance from qualified and reliable spiritual teachers.
91
Is all forms of doubt considered negative or unwholesome in Buddhist practice?
No, 'investigative doubt' or 'skeptical inquiry' that arises from a genuine desire to understand and motivates deeper learning is seen as a valuable part of the path, unlike afflicted doubt which is a mental hindrance.
92
How does afflicted doubt (vicikitsā) relate to the development of trust or faith (śraddhā) in the Dharma?
Afflicted doubt directly undermines and erodes reasoned faith or confident conviction (śraddhā) in the truth and efficacy of the Buddhist teachings and path.
93
Can unresolved afflicted doubt (vicikitsā) lead to a practitioner abandoning their spiritual journey?
Yes, if afflicted doubt is not addressed and resolved through study, reflection, and practice, it can lead to a complete loss of conviction and disengagement from the path.
94
When afflicted doubt (vicikitsā) focuses on one's own abilities to practice the Dharma, what can it lead to?
It can lead to discouragement, feelings of inadequacy, self-deprecation (in an unhelpful, paralyzing way), and a tendency to give up on spiritual practice before making sufficient effort.
95
If one harbors afflicted doubt (vicikitsā) about the fundamental law of karma (cause and effect), what might be the potential behavioral consequence?
A tendency to neglect ethical considerations in one's actions, a weakening of moral restraint, and an increased likelihood of engaging in non-virtuous deeds.
96
What are afflicted views (dṛṣṭi) in a general sense within Buddhist psychology?
Intellectually formed wrong conceptions or beliefs about the nature of reality, particularly concerning the self (pudgala) and other phenomena (dharmas), that are imbued with affliction and serve as a basis for suffering.
97
How do afflicted views (dṛṣṭi) generally differ from mere intellectual errors or ordinary mistaken ideas?
Afflicted views are actively held with a strong sense of grasping and conviction, often serve as a foundation for other afflictions (like pride or attachment) to arise, and motivate negative or unskillful actions.
98
What is the 'view of a personal identity' or 'view of a transitory collection' (satkāyadṛṣṭi)?
An afflicted view that grasps at the 'I' or 'mine' as inherently or truly existent, either as identical with, or as the owner/controller of, the five psychophysical aggregates (skandhas) which are by nature transitory.
99
Why is the 'view of a personal identity' (satkāyadṛṣṭi) often considered a primary or root afflicted view, and a basis for other afflictions?
It is the fundamental intellectual basis for self-cherishing, attachment to 'I' and 'mine', aversion to what threatens this perceived 'I', and many other derivative afflictions.
100
What are the two main ways the 'view of a personal identity' (satkāyadṛṣṭi) typically grasps at the 'I' in relation to the aggregates?
It grasps the 'I' as being inherently one with the aggregates (identification view), or as inherently separate from and possessing/controlling the aggregates (controller view).
101
What is the 'view of extremes' (antagrahadṛṣṭi)?
An afflicted view that clings to one of two extreme philosophical positions: eternalism (that the self or phenomena are permanent, unchanging, and inherently existent) or nihilism (that the self ceases completely at death with no continuity, or denying moral cause and effect, or asserting utter non-existence).
102
How does the extreme view of eternalism lead to suffering and unskillful actions?
By creating attachment to a fantasized permanent self and enduring phenomena, leading to disappointment, fear of loss, and resistance to change. It can also lead to complacency.
103
How does the extreme view of nihilism lead to suffering and unskillful actions?
By undermining ethical behavior (through denial of karma and rebirth), a sense of meaning or purpose, and the motivation for spiritual practice, potentially leading to recklessness, despair, or hedonism.
104
What is 'holding wrong views as supreme' or 'view-grasping' (dṛṣṭiparāmarśa)?
An afflicted view that considers one's own (often incorrect) philosophical, religious, or spiritual views as the highest, most correct, or only valid perspective, and clings to them with dogmatic attachment.
105
How does 'holding wrong views as supreme' (dṛṣṭiparāmarśa) act as an obstacle to spiritual progress?
It prevents one from impartially examining and accepting correct teachings, fosters sectarianism, closes the mind to alternative valid perspectives, and reinforces intellectual pride.
106
What is 'holding mistaken ethics and modes of conduct as supreme' or 'ethics-and-conduct-grasping' (śīlavrataparāmarśa)?
An afflicted view that clings stubbornly to pointless, ineffective, or misguided rituals, austerities, or ethical codes, mistakenly believing them to be the primary or sufficient cause of purification, liberation, or higher states.
107
Can you provide an example of 'mistaken ethics and modes of conduct as supreme' (śīlavrataparāmarśa)?
Beliefs such as thinking that animal sacrifice, extreme and unskillful self-mortification devoid of wisdom and compassion, or adherence to purely external rituals alone will lead to ultimate liberation.
108
What is 'wrong view' (mithyādṛṣṭi) in a more general and severe sense within this category of afflicted views?
A view that actively denies or repudiates what is factually true and crucially important for liberation, such as denying the existence of past and future lives, the principle of karmic cause and effect, the existence and qualities of the Three Jewels (Buddha, Dharma, Sangha), or the possibility of attaining arhatship or buddhahood.
109
How does 'wrong view' (mithyādṛṣṭi), particularly the denial of karma and rebirth, directly cause great harm?
It leads to the abandonment of virtuous practices, the unrestrained engagement in harmful and non-virtuous actions, the creation of immense negative karma, and the loss of opportunity for spiritual progress.
110
Are afflicted views always consciously formulated and articulated philosophies, or can they be more subtle?
The more deeply ingrained afflicted views, such as the view of a personal identity (satkāyadṛṣṭi), can be both innate (instinctive and pre-conceptual) and also intellectually acquired, formulated, and reinforced.
111
What is the primary and most powerful antidote that can uproot all afflicted views (dṛṣṭi)?
The direct realization of wisdom (prajñā) understanding emptiness (the lack of inherent existence of persons and phenomena) and dependent arising.
112
How many root afflictions are commonly enumerated in many Buddhist Abhidharma systems?
Six: ignorance (avidyā), attachment (rāga), anger (dveṣa), pride (māna), afflicted doubt (vicikitsā), and afflicted views (dṛṣṭi) (though afflicted views themselves are a category containing several types).
113
Among the six common root afflictions, which one is considered the fundamental root from which the other five primarily stem or are supported?
Ignorance (avidyā), particularly the ignorance grasping at a truly existent self and phenomena.
114
How does the view of a personal identity (satkāyadṛṣṭi) contribute to the experience of fear, especially fear of death?
By grasping at an inherently existent 'I' that is identified with the perishable body or mind, one fears the annihilation or loss of this cherished 'I' at death.
115
What is the key difference between the conventional, functional conceptual thought of 'I' (necessary for daily life) and the afflicted view of a personal identity (satkāyadṛṣṭi)?
Satkāyadṛṣṭi is not merely the conventional designation 'I', but specifically the deluded *grasping* at this 'I' as being inherently existent, independent, or a permanent entity.
116
How does the extreme view of eternalism (a type of antagrahadṛṣṭi) manifest in one's perception of worldly phenomena, not just the self?
It can manifest as believing that worldly objects, relationships, or situations have a fixed, unchanging, and independent essence, leading to unrealistic expectations and suffering when they inevitably change.
117
How does the extreme view of nihilism (a type of antagrahadṛṣṭi) manifest in relation to actions and their ethical consequences?
It often involves denying the validity of karmic cause and effect, leading to the belief that actions have no meaningful moral consequences beyond the immediate physical results, or that there is no continuity of consciousness after death to experience such consequences.
118
What are secondary or auxiliary afflictions, also known as upakleśa?
They are specific types of afflictions that arise in dependence on one or more of the root afflictions (like anger, attachment, or ignorance) and particular eliciting circumstances, further coloring the mind in a negative way.
119
Approximately how many secondary afflictions are commonly listed in Buddhist Abhidharma traditions, such as the works of Vasubandhu or Asaṅga?
Twenty secondary afflictions are commonly enumerated.
120
From which root affliction are secondary afflictions such as belligerence (krodha - in the sense of wrath/fury), resentment (upanāha), and spite (pradāśa) primarily derived?
They are primarily derived from, or are manifestations of, the root affliction of anger (dveṣa) or aversion.
121
What is belligerence or wrath (krodha), when considered as a secondary affliction?
An agitated and hostile state of mind intending to cause immediate harm, express intense displeasure, or an outburst of fury; it's a manifest, often explosive, aspect of anger.
122
How does belligerence or wrath (krodha as a secondary affliction) typically differ from the broader root affliction of anger (dveṣa)?
Belligerence is often considered a more intense, active, and outwardly expressive manifestation or a specific functional part within the continuum of the root affliction of anger.
123
What is resentment (upanāha) as a secondary affliction?
The mental factor of holding a grudge, bearing lasting ill will, or refusing to let go of anger and animosity due to past perceived harm or offenses from others.
124
How does resentment (upanāha) cause ongoing suffering for the individual who harbors it?
It continuously keeps the mind agitated and disturbed, prevents genuine forgiveness and reconciliation, and repeatedly re-activates negative feelings and memories associated with the past perceived harm.
125
What is spite (pradāśa) as a secondary affliction?
A malicious and often concealed wish to retaliate against, speak ill of, or see others suffer, often expressed through harsh words, backbiting, or actions designed to cause distress.
126
How does spite (pradāśa) generally differ from a simple, spontaneous arising of anger?
Spite often involves a more calculated, sustained, or cruel intention to cause pain, belittle, or bring misfortune to another, rather than just a reactive flash of anger.
127
What is cruelty (vihiṃsā) when listed as a secondary affliction?
The uncompassionate wish to inflict suffering, harm, or distress on other sentient beings, or even taking pleasure in observing or causing others' pain; it's a severe and active form of anger.
128
What is envy or jealousy (īrṣyā) as a secondary affliction?
A state of mental agitation, discontent, or displeasure that arises due to an intolerance of another's good fortune, excellence, possessions, success, or happiness.
129
Which root afflictions does jealousy (īrṣyā) often combine or is closely associated with?
It primarily combines aversion or anger towards the other person's success or desirable attributes, and often also attachment to one's own status, desires, or a sense of inadequacy.
130
How does jealousy (īrṣyā) cause suffering to the person experiencing it?
It creates profound unhappiness and discontent, prevents rejoicing in the good fortune of others (muditā), can damage relationships, and may lead to negative actions aimed at undermining the other person.
131
From which root affliction is the secondary affliction of miserliness (mātsarya) primarily derived?
Miserliness is primarily related to and derived from the root affliction of attachment (rāga) or craving.
132
What is miserliness (mātsarya) as a secondary affliction?
The inability or unwillingness to share one's own possessions, wealth, knowledge, virtues, or other resources with others, due to excessive attachment, hoarding, and fear of personal loss or diminishment.
133
How does miserliness (mātsarya) hinder spiritual development and the cultivation of positive qualities?
It directly prevents the practice of generosity (dāna), one of the perfections; it creates social isolation, reinforces self-centeredness, and tightens the grip of attachment.
134
What is excitement or mental scattering (auddhatya) as a secondary affliction?
A mental factor that, due to attachment to pleasant or engaging external objects or internal experiences (like memories or plans), makes the mind restless, agitated, and unable to stay focused on a chosen virtuous object, especially in meditation.
135
How does excitement (auddhatya) act as a specific obstacle to the development of meditative concentration (samādhi)?
It continuously draws the mind away from the single-pointed object of meditation towards various distracting thoughts related to objects of attachment, making the mind unstable.
136
Is excitement (auddhatya) always characterized by overtly 'exciting' or agitated thoughts?
No, it can also manifest as a subtle mental restlessness, a gentle drifting of the mind, or being easily drawn to any object of past, present, or potential attachment, even if not overtly dramatic.
137
From which root affliction(s) are the secondary afflictions of concealment (mrakṣa) and hypocrisy (śāṭhya) often related?
They are often related to ignorance (particularly regarding karmic consequences or a desire to protect a mistaken self-image based on ignorance of the true self), and also involve elements of attachment (to reputation) and aversion (to censure).
138
What is concealment (mrakṣa) as a secondary affliction?
The mental factor of actively hiding or covering up one's own faults, non-virtues, or wrongdoings from others, usually motivated by shame, fear of negative consequences, or a desire to maintain a false positive image.
139
How does concealment (mrakṣa) obstruct personal growth and spiritual progress?
It prevents one from honestly acknowledging one's faults, seeking guidance or help for them, and applying the necessary antidotes, thereby allowing negative habits to persist.
140
What is hypocrisy (śāṭhya) as a secondary affliction?
The mental factor of pretending to possess qualities, virtues, or realizations that one does not actually have, or displaying a false appearance of goodness or piousness to deceive others for personal gain, reputation, or status.
141
How does hypocrisy (śāṭhya) primarily differ from concealment (mrakṣa)?
Concealment (mrakṣa) is about hiding one's actual faults or negativities. Hypocrisy (śāṭhya) is about feigning or falsely displaying non-existent virtues or positive qualities.
142
What is haughtiness or arrogance (mada) when listed as a secondary affliction?
Being inflated with a sense of self-importance, carelessness, or intoxication due to temporary advantages like one's youth, health, wealth, status, lineage, or attractiveness, often leading to disrespect for others and a neglect of caution. (This is closely related to pride but often emphasized for its basis in fleeting conditions).
143
How is haughtiness (mada) related to the root affliction of pride (māna) but with a specific nuance?
Mada is often seen as a particular manifestation of pride that is specifically fueled by attachment to temporary, often worldly, advantages, leading to a state of mental 'intoxication' or heedlessness and disrespectful behavior.
144
What is mental dullness or sinking (styāna, sometimes paired with laya) as a secondary affliction and an obstacle in meditation?
A state where the mind lacks clarity, alertness, and intensity, making it heavy, sluggish, torpid, and unable to apprehend its object of focus (e.g., meditation object) properly or vividly.
145
Which root affliction is mental dullness (styāna) often closely associated with, as it obscures mental clarity?
It is often associated with ignorance (moha or avidyā), as it represents an unclear and obscured state of mind.
146
How does mental dullness (styāna) generally differ from ordinary sleepiness (middha), though they can co-arise?
Dullness (styāna) is a specific lack of mental clarity and intensity towards the object of focus, where the mind loses its vivid apprehension. Sleepiness (middha) is a more general physical and mental state characterized by a desire to sleep and a withdrawal of sensory and mental activity.
147
What is lack of faith or lack of conviction (āśraddhya) when considered as a secondary affliction?
A mental factor characterized by a lack of belief, trust, or joyful appreciation in what is truly worthy of respect and belief, such as the law of karma, the Three Jewels (Buddha, Dharma, Sangha), the four noble truths, or the efficacy of the path.
148
How does lack of faith (āśraddhya) hinder or obstruct dedicated spiritual practice?
It prevents the arising of joyful effort (vīrya), perseverance, and wholehearted engagement in the path, as one doubts its validity or value.
149
What is laziness or spiritual sloth (kausīdya) as a secondary affliction?
A mental factor characterized by clinging to unwholesome or distracting activities, or to inactivity and comfort, thereby lacking enthusiasm, energy, or diligence for engaging in virtuous endeavors, study, reflection, or meditation.
150
What are the commonly identified types of laziness (kausīdya) that obstruct spiritual progress?
Typically three: 1. Laziness of procrastination (delaying virtuous actions); 2. Laziness of attachment to unwholesome or trivial activities (being busy with what is not conducive to the path); 3. Laziness of discouragement or feeling incapable (giving up due to a false sense of inadequacy).
151
How does laziness (kausīdya) directly obstruct the accumulation of virtue and wisdom?
It prevents one from consistently engaging in the necessary positive actions of studying the Dharma, reflecting on its meaning, meditating to gain insight, and practicing ethical conduct and other virtues.
152
What is unconscientiousness or lack of personal integrity (āhrīkya) as a secondary affliction?
A lack of internal moral shame or self-respect; an absence of concern for how one's negative actions affect oneself ethically, leading to shamelessness regarding non-virtue from a personal ethical standpoint.
153
How does lack of integrity (āhrīkya) contribute to the performance of negative or unwholesome actions?
It removes or weakens the internal restraint against non-virtue, making one more prone to engage in harmful deeds without personal remorse.
154
What is inconsiderateness for others or lack of public propriety (anapatrāpya) as a secondary affliction?
A lack of concern for how one's actions affect others, societal norms, or the reputation of those one is associated with; shamelessness regarding non-virtue from the perspective of others' views or social consequences.
155
How does lack of propriety (anapatrāpya) potentially damage social harmony and relationships?
It leads to actions that disregard the well-being, feelings, or reputation of others, and can violate ethical standards held by one's community or tradition.
156
What is non-abiding distraction or forgetfulness of instructions/mindfulness (muṣitasmṛtitā) as a secondary affliction?
The mental factor of losing one's mindfulness of virtuous objects, precepts, or meditation instructions, typically due to the mind being scattered, drawn away by afflictions, or a weak application of mindfulness.
157
How does forgetfulness of instructions (muṣitasmṛtitā) specifically affect the practice of meditation?
It causes one to lose the object of meditation, forget the correct technique, or become easily sidetracked by discursive thoughts.
158
What is non-introspective awareness or lack of alertness/vigilance (asamprajanya) as a secondary affliction?
The failure to continuously monitor one's own mental state (thoughts and emotions) and physical behavior, and thus not recognizing when afflictions are arising, when one is straying from virtue, or when mindfulness has been lost.
159
How does lack of alertness (asamprajanya) allow afflictions to gain strength and influence one's actions?
By not detecting the subtle arising of afflictions or unskillful mental states at an early stage, one cannot apply the necessary antidotes or make timely corrections, allowing them to grow stronger.
160
What does it generally mean for an affliction to be 'manifest' or 'active'?
It means the affliction is actively present and operating in the conscious mind at that moment, directly influencing thoughts, feelings, perceptions, and potentially motivating actions.
161
What does it generally mean for an affliction to be 'latent,' a 'seed' (bīja), or a 'predisposition' (anuśaya)?
It means the affliction is not currently manifest or active in the conscious mind, but exists as a dormant potential, tendency, or karmic imprint in the mindstream, ready to arise and become manifest when suitable conditions and triggers are encountered.
162
How are afflictions often related to the different general realms of existence (desire realm, form realm, formless realm)?
Some grosser afflictions, like overt sensual desire or anger, are primarily associated with the desire realm. Subtler forms of attachment (to meditative states), subtle pride, and very subtle ignorance can persist even in the higher form and formless realms.
163
Which types of afflictions are primarily said to be abandoned or overcome by the path of seeing (darśana-mārga)?
The path of seeing, which involves the first direct realization of emptiness, primarily abandons the intellectually acquired afflictions, particularly the intellectually acquired (parikalpita) forms of the view of a personal identity and other wrong views.
164
Which types of afflictions are primarily said to be abandoned or overcome by the path of meditation (bhāvanā-mārga)?
The path of meditation, through repeated and prolonged cultivation of wisdom and other path factors, gradually reduces and eventually eliminates the innate (sahaja) afflictions, which are more deeply rooted and instinctual.
165
What is the general function of all afflictions concerning one's mental peace and clarity?
They invariably destroy mental peace, create agitation or disturbance, and obscure mental clarity, preventing calm and clear seeing.
166
What is the general function of all afflictions concerning the development of wisdom (prajñā)?
They act as primary obscurations to wisdom, preventing the mind from accurately perceiving the true nature of reality.
167
What is the general function of all afflictions concerning the attainment of liberation (nirvāṇa)?
They are the fundamental internal obstacles that bind sentient beings to cyclic existence (samsara) and prevent the attainment of liberation.
168
How do afflictions 'pollute' or 'contaminate' the mindstream?
They stain or contaminate the naturally pure mindstream with negativity, obscuration, agitation, and the tendency to create suffering for oneself and others.
169
What is meant by the Buddhist teaching that afflictions are 'adventitious' or 'adventitious stains' (āgantuka-mala)?
It means that afflictions are not part of the essential, intrinsic, or ultimate nature of the mind (which is considered primordially pure or luminous), but are temporary, incidental obscurations that can be removed.
170
How does understanding afflictions as 'adventitious' provide a basis for optimism in spiritual practice?
It implies that because they are not inherent to the mind's nature, they can be completely and permanently removed, allowing the mind's pure nature to be revealed. This makes liberation possible.
171
What is the term 'klesha-āvaraṇa,' often translated as 'afflictive obscurations' or 'obscurations of afflictions'?
This refers to the category of obscurations created primarily by the kleshas (afflictions), which are the principal factors that prevent sentient beings from attaining liberation (nirvāṇa) from cyclic existence.
172
Do afflictions typically arise due to a single isolated cause, or do they depend on multiple factors and conditions?
Afflictions arise due to a confluence of various causes and conditions, including past karmic imprints or seeds (bīja) of those afflictions, contact with a relevant object, and, crucially, inappropriate attention or misapprehension regarding the object.
173
What is 'inappropriate attention' or 'unwise mental engagement' (ayoniso manasikāra) in the context of how afflictions arise?
It is a distorted or unskillful way of attending to an object that exaggerates its supposedly positive (attractive) or negative (repulsive) qualities, or misinterprets its nature, thereby triggering and fueling the arising of corresponding afflictions like attachment or aversion.
174
Can afflictions arise in the mind without an object (ālambana) towards which they are directed?
No, afflictions, as intentional mental factors, always have an object or focus, whether it is an external person or thing, an internal feeling or thought, or even the self.
175
What role do the sense faculties (indriya) and their contact with objects play in the arising of afflictions?
The contact between the sense faculties, their respective sense objects, and the corresponding sense consciousnesses provides the perceptual input or condition upon which afflictions can arise, based on how that perceived object is then apprehended and interpreted by the mind.
176
How does the mental habit of grasping at 'signs,' 'marks,' or 'characteristics' (nimitta) of objects contribute to the generation of afflictions?
By focusing on, reifying, and clinging to certain perceived appearances or characteristics of objects (e.g., labeling something as inherently 'beautiful,' 'ugly,' 'mine,' or 'threatening'), one provides a solid-seeming basis for afflictions like attachment, aversion, or pride to arise and intensify.
177
What is the fundamental relationship between all other afflictions and the primary affliction of 'ego-grasping' or 'self-grasping' (ātma-grāha)?
Self-grasping, which is a form of ignorance that misconceives an inherently existent self, is considered the fundamental root that nourishes, supports, and gives rise to all other afflictions such as attachment, anger, pride, etc.
178
Can afflictions be permanently overcome by mere suppression through willpower or temporary meditative states alone?
Temporary suppression of manifest afflictions is possible through strong willpower or certain levels of concentration, but true and permanent eradication requires uprooting their underlying causes, especially ignorance, with the direct insight of wisdom (prajñā).
179
What are the 'three poisons' (triviṣa) commonly referred to in Buddhism as fundamental sources of suffering?
Ignorance (often symbolized by a pig), attachment/desire/greed (symbolized by a rooster/pigeon), and anger/aversion/hatred (symbolized by a snake).
180
Why are ignorance, attachment, and anger collectively referred to as the 'three poisons'?
Because they are considered the primary mental toxins that poison our minds, contaminate our actions, and perpetuate the cycle of suffering (duḥkha) and rebirth in samsara.
181
Among the 'three poisons,' which one is generally considered the ultimate root or source of the other two?
Ignorance (moha/avidyā) is considered the fundamental root from which attachment and anger arise.
182
How do afflictions (kleshas) compel or impel sentient beings to create actions (karma)?
Afflictions act as powerful motivating forces that stir the mind and impel it to engage in various intentional actions (karma) of body, speech, and mind, which then create karmic consequences.
183
Is there a difference between an 'affliction' (klesha) and a 'non-afflicted negative emotion' or feeling?
Yes. Afflictions (kleshas) are specifically defined by their function of disturbing the peace of mind, arising from a deluded root (like ignorance), and perpetuating samsaric existence. Some negative feelings or emotions (e.g., sadness due to empathy for another's suffering, or constructive remorse) might not be classified as kleshas if they lack this deluded, disturbing, and samsara-binding quality.
184
Can one experience any form of happiness if afflictions are still present, even latently, in the mindstream?
Yes, one can experience 'contaminated happiness' (sāsrava-sukha) – worldly pleasures and joys that are impermanent, ultimately unsatisfactory, and still bound within cyclic existence because they arise while the mind is under the influence of afflictions. True, lasting, uncontaminated peace (nirvāṇa) is free of all afflictions.
185
How do afflictions lead to the creation of karma, the second true origin of duḥkha?
Afflictions, particularly the intention (cetanā) driven by them, motivate and compel individuals to engage in intentional actions (karma) of body, speech, and mind, which then leave imprints or seeds for future experiences.
186
Are the actions (karma) themselves considered to be afflictions (kleshas)?
No, in Buddhist psychology, karma (volitional actions and their imprints) and kleshas (deluded mental factors) are distinct categories. Kleshas are the motivators; karma is the action performed under that motivation and its resultant potential.
187
Can conventionally virtuous actions be performed even if underlying subtle afflictions, like ignorance, are still present in one's mindstream?
Yes, one can perform actions that are conventionally virtuous (e.g., generosity, ethical conduct). However, if the deep root of ignorance grasping at inherent existence is not addressed, these actions may still be 'contaminated' by subtle self-interest or delusion and primarily lead to favorable but still samsaric results, rather than ultimate liberation.
188
What kind of karma is primarily produced by strong afflictions such as intense anger, hatred, or malice?
These afflictions predominantly motivate negative or non-virtuous karma, which leads to experiences of suffering, unfortunate rebirths, and obstacles on the path.
189
What kind of karma can be produced by the affliction of attachment, especially if it is directed towards samsaric pleasures, possessions, or status?
Attachment, when directed towards worldly ends, typically motivates karma that leads to further entanglement in cyclic existence, even if some of that karma results in temporary pleasant experiences or favorable but still samsaric rebirths.
190
Does the root affliction of ignorance directly create karma by itself, or does it primarily operate by giving rise to other afflictions which then motivate specific karmic actions?
Ignorance is the fundamental root. It gives rise to other afflictions (like attachment and aversion), and these more specific afflictions then directly motivate the particular karmic actions of body, speech, and mind.
191
If afflictions (kleshas) are completely and irreversibly abandoned from one's mindstream, what is the consequence for the creation of new karma that propels one into cyclic existence?
The creation of new contaminated karma that compels rebirth and perpetuates suffering in cyclic existence ceases entirely.
192
What is meant by 'polluted' or 'contaminated' karma (sāsrava-karma)?
This refers to any karmic action, whether conventionally seen as positive or negative, that is performed under the influence of afflictions, especially the fundamental ignorance that grasps at inherent existence. Such karma ripens within samsara.
193
What are some of the factors that determine whether a particular karmic action will be 'heavy' (producing significant results quickly) or 'light' (producing less significant results or results over a longer period)?
Factors include the strength and nature of the motivating affliction, the nature and completeness of the action itself, the status or qualities of the object of the action (e.g., acting towards a spiritual teacher vs. an ordinary being), repetition, and the presence or absence of regret and purification.
194
Do afflictions influence only the creation of overtly negative karma, or can they also subtly influence what might appear as 'samsaric' positive karma?
Yes, afflictions can subtly influence even conventionally positive karma. For instance, acts of generosity or ethical conduct, if motivated by attachment to a good reputation, a desire for a pleasant future samsaric life, or subtle pride, are still tinged by afflictions and thus remain within the sphere of samsaric causes and effects.
195
What are the 'five hindrances' (pañcanīvaraṇa) that are specifically known to obstruct meditation?
A set of five categories of mental defilements that are particularly obstructive to the development of meditative concentration (śamatha) and overall progress on the spiritual path.
196
What is the first of the traditional list of five hindrances to meditation?
Sensual desire (kāmacchanda).
197
What characterizes 'sensual desire' (kāmacchanda) when it functions as a meditative hindrance?
It is a mental state preoccupied with, or actively longing for, pleasures related to the five physical senses (agreeable sights, sounds, smells, tastes, and tactile sensations).
198
How does the hindrance of sensual desire (kāmacchanda) specifically obstruct the practice of meditation?
It pulls the mind away from the chosen object of meditation, causing it to scatter towards thoughts, memories, and fantasies of various sensual pleasures, making focus difficult.
199
What is the second of the five hindrances to meditation?
Malice or ill will (vyāpāda).
200
What characterizes 'malice' or 'ill will' (vyāpāda) when it functions as a meditative hindrance?
It involves thoughts of hatred, anger, aversion, resentment, or any form of ill will directed towards other beings, frustrating situations, or even oneself.
201
How does the hindrance of malice (vyāpāda) specifically obstruct the practice of meditation?
It creates significant mental agitation, destroys inner peace and tranquility, and makes the mind unpliable and resistant to settling on a virtuous object.
202
What is the third of the five hindrances to meditation, often described as a pair?
Lethargy and sleepiness (styāna-middha), sometimes translated as sloth and torpor.
203
What characterizes 'lethargy' (styāna) in the context of the five meditative hindrances?
It is a mental factor causing dullness, heaviness, sluggishness, or a lack of energy and clarity in the mind, reducing its capacity to apprehend the meditation object vividly.
204
What characterizes 'sleepiness' or 'torpor' (middha) in the context of the five meditative hindrances?
It is a mental factor causing drowsiness, a sinking of the mind, physical heaviness, or an actual desire to fall asleep during meditation.
205
How do the combined hindrances of lethargy and sleepiness (styāna-middha) obstruct meditation?
They make the mind unable to clearly apprehend or sustain focused attention on the meditation object, leading to a foggy, weak, or interrupted practice.
206
What is the fourth of the five hindrances to meditation, also often described as a pair?
Restlessness and regret (auddhatya-kaukritya), sometimes translated as excitement and worry.
207
What characterizes 'restlessness' (auddhatya) when it functions as a meditative hindrance?
It is a state of mental agitation, scattering, or excitement where the mind cannot settle on one point but instead jumps from one thought or object to another, often due to underlying attachment, anxiety, or discursive thinking.
208
What characterizes 'regret' or 'worry' (kaukritya) when it functions as a meditative hindrance?
It involves anxiety, remorse, or guilt about past unwholesome actions, or worry and preoccupation about unfulfilled duties, future events, or unresolved issues, all of which disturb the mind's calm.
209
How do the combined hindrances of restlessness and regret (auddhatya-kaukritya) obstruct meditation?
They prevent the mind from becoming calm, stable, and single-pointedly focused on the meditation object by constantly pulling it towards discursive and often agitated thoughts.
210
What is the fifth of the five hindrances to meditation?
Deluded doubt or skeptical doubt (vicikitsā).
211
What characterizes 'deluded doubt' (vicikitsā) when it functions as a meditative hindrance?
It is a state of uncertainty, indecision, hesitation, or skeptical questioning regarding the Buddha, the Dharma (teachings), the Sangha (spiritual community), the validity or efficacy of the meditation practice itself, or one's own ability to make progress.
212
How does the hindrance of deluded doubt (vicikitsā) specifically obstruct meditation and spiritual progress?
It undermines confidence and conviction, prevents sustained and joyful effort, creates mental wavering and internal conflict, and can lead to abandoning the practice.
213
Why are these five specific mental states called 'hindrances' (nīvaraṇa)?
Because they act as significant impediments or coverings that obstruct the attainment of mental serenity (śamatha), particularly the profound states of meditative absorption found in the form and formless realms (dhyānas and samāpattis), and generally hinder spiritual insight.
214
From an ethical standpoint, are the five hindrances generally considered virtuous or non-virtuous mental states?
They are consistently considered non-virtuous (akuśala) mental states.
215
In which of the three principal realms of existence (desire, form, formless) are the five hindrances predominantly found or most actively operative?
They are primarily found in, and are characteristic defilements of, desire-realm beings. Higher realms are temporarily free from their grosser manifestations.
216
What is a crucial point to remember about the nature of defilements (kleshas) when studying them in Buddhist psychology, especially regarding their relationship to the mind?
A crucial point is that defilements are not embedded in, nor are they part of, the essential or ultimate nature of our minds.
217
What common analogy is used in Buddhist teachings to describe the relationship between adventitious defilements and the mind's true or fundamental nature?
Defilements are often compared to clouds in the sky that temporarily obscure the clear, luminous nature of the sky itself, but these clouds are not intrinsic to the sky and can disperse.
218
What is meant by the 'clear light nature of the mind' (citta-prakṛti-prabhāsvara) in this context?
It refers to the fundamental, pure, undefiled, and luminous nature of consciousness itself, which is temporarily obscured by the presence of adventitious defilements but remains unstained by them at its core.
219
According to Buddhist teachings, can these adventitious defilements be completely removed from the mind?
Yes, just as clouds can be cleared from the sky, it is taught that all adventitious defilements can be completely and permanently removed from the mindstream through the application of the path.
220
What is the significant difference highlighted between the temporary removal of clouds from the sky and the thorough cleansing of defilements from the mind, especially concerning their potential to return?
Clouds, even when dispersed, can always gather and reappear in the sky. However, when defilements are thoroughly and wisely cleansed from the mind by uprooting their causes (especially ignorance), they can never return or stain the mind again.
221
What is the ultimate state or result when all defilements are completely and irreversibly removed from the mind?
The pure, luminous, sky-like nature of the mind radiates forever unobscured, which is characteristic of the attainment of true cessation, nirvāṇa, and ultimately, the omniscience of buddhahood.
222
Does the textual tradition acknowledge that some defilements might be categorized in multiple ways or have definitions that seem to overlap with others?
Yes, it is often mentioned that some defilements can be found in multiple classifications, and various forms or aspects of the primary afflictions like attachment, anger, and ignorance may appear under different names or with slightly varying definitions depending on the context of the analysis.
223
Despite the potential for variations in classification or terminology, what three powerful and deeply rooted tendencies of our minds are repeatedly highlighted as fundamental afflictions to be addressed?
Attachment (or desire/greed), anger (or aversion/hatred), and ignorance (or delusion).
224
What is the practical importance of paying sustained attention to these three strong mental tendencies (attachment, anger, and ignorance)?
They are fundamental afflictions that pervasively influence our thoughts, feelings, and actions, and therefore it is essential (it behooves us) to understand their nature, how they arise, and how to counteract them for spiritual progress.
225
What is the ultimate and transformative effect of thoroughly cleansing all defilements from one's mindstream by cultivating the path?
The attainment of irreversible peace, complete liberation from the cycle of suffering (nirvāṇa), and eventually the full awakening and boundless compassion of a buddha.
