The Self, the Four Truths, and Their Sixteen Attributes Flashcards
Chapter 1 (184 cards)
1
Q
What is the fundamental framework of Buddhadharma established by?
A
The Four Truths of the āryas.
2
Q
Who knows the Four Truths as true?
A
Ārya beings who directly see the ultimate nature of all persons and phenomena.
3
Q
What do the Four Truths describe regarding the self?
A
The unawakened and awakened experiences of the merely designated self.
4
Q
According to many non-Buddhist views, what kind of self takes rebirth?
A
An independent self, an ātman, or soul.
5
Q
What is the Buddhist view on an independent, inherently existent self?
A
No such self exists; the self is a dependent arising.
6
Q
How is the self described in Buddhism in relation to the body and mind?
A
The self is ‘merely designated’ in dependence on the body and mind, which are its basis of designation.
7
Q
If the self were independent, what characteristic would it need to have according to Buddhist analysis?
A
It would be findable under ultimate analysis, but it is not.
8
Q
If ‘self’ refers to an inherently existent self, does it have a beginning?
A
No, because such a self does not exist in the first place.
9
Q
If ‘self’ refers to the conventional ‘I’ or person, does its continuum of consciousness have a beginning?
A
No, each moment of mind is understood to be preceded by a previous moment of mind in a beginningless continuum.
10
Q
What foundational Buddhist understanding supports the beginningless nature of the conventional self’s mental continuum?
A
The understanding of rebirth and the continuity of consciousness.
11
Q
Can the afflicted self, which is the basis for samsaric suffering, come to an end?
A
Yes, with the attainment of nirvana and ultimately buddhahood.
12
Q
What specifically ceases when the afflicted self ends?
A
The mistaken grasping at an inherently existent self and the afflictions (kleshas) rooted in that grasping.
13
Q
Does the conventional self, as a stream of consciousness and a designated person, end with buddhahood?
A
No, it continues in a purified form, free from afflictions and the karma that causes uncontrolled rebirth.
14
Q
Where did the Buddha deliver his first teaching, which was on the Four Truths?
A
In the Deer Park at Sarnath.
15
Q
What is the common medical analogy used to explain the structure of the Four Truths?
A
True Sufferings are like an illness, True Origins are the cause of the illness, True Cessations are the cure or state of health, and True Paths are the medicine or treatment.
16
Q
Why are the Four Truths referred to as ‘true’ or ‘noble’?
A
They are facts directly realized as true by āryas, those beings who have a non-conceptual realization of ultimate reality (emptiness).
17
Q
What is the First Noble Truth?
A
True Sufferings, or Dukkha in Sanskrit.
18
Q
What does ‘True Sufferings’ primarily refer to?
A
The unsatisfactory nature of our existence within cyclic existence (samsara), encompassing not just overt pain but also the suffering of change and pervasive compositional suffering.
19
Q
What are considered ‘True Sufferings’ in relation to our being?
A
Our five aggregates (body and mind) which are produced by and under the influence of afflictions and karma.
20
Q
What is the primary instruction or task associated with True Sufferings?
A
They are to be fully known or understood.
21
Q
What is the Second Noble Truth?
A
True Origins, or Samudaya in Sanskrit.
22
Q
What are the ‘True Origins’ or causes of suffering?
A
Primarily karma (volitional actions) and afflictions (kleshas such as ignorance, attachment, and anger).
23
Q
What is pinpointed as the principal ‘True Origin’ of all suffering in samsara?
A
Ignorance, specifically the ignorance that grasps at persons and phenomena as having inherent existence.
24
Q
What is the primary instruction or task associated with True Origins?
A
They are to be abandoned or eliminated.
25
What is the Third Noble Truth?
True Cessations, or Nirodha in Sanskrit.
26
What does 'True Cessations' refer to?
The complete and irreversible ending of True Sufferings and their True Origins.
27
How is 'True Cessation' fundamentally achieved?
By eradicating ignorance, the root cause of suffering, through the wisdom realizing emptiness.
28
What is another common term for 'True Cessation'?
Nirvana.
29
What is the primary instruction or task associated with True Cessations?
They are to be actualized or attained.
30
What is the Fourth Noble Truth?
True Paths, or Magga in Sanskrit.
31
What do 'True Paths' refer to?
The methods, practices, and wisdom that lead to the achievement of True Cessation.
32
What is the primary and most crucial component of 'True Paths'?
The wisdom that directly realizes emptiness (the lack of inherent existence of self and phenomena).
33
What other practices support the primary component of 'True Paths'?
The other aspects of the three higher trainings: ethical conduct (śīla) and meditative concentration (samādhi).
34
What is the primary instruction or task associated with True Paths?
They are to be relied upon, cultivated, or developed.
35
In what sequence are the Four Truths typically presented for initial understanding?
1. True Sufferings, 2. True Origins, 3. True Cessations, 4. True Paths.
36
In what sequence do the Four Truths unfold in terms of actual practice and attainment?
One cultivates the True Path, which leads to the actualization of True Cessation, which is the definitive end of True Sufferings and their True Origins.
37
What is the main emphasis of the Coarse Four Truths?
They address the sufferings of individuals and the selflessness of persons, primarily for practitioners of the Fundamental Vehicle aiming for arhatship.
38
What are 'coarse true sufferings' generally understood as?
The more obvious forms of suffering, such as physical and mental pain, and the frustration of impermanent pleasures.
39
What constitutes 'coarse true origins'?
The afflictions and contaminated karma that directly lead to rebirth and suffering within the cycle of existence.
40
What does 'coarse true cessation' signify?
The liberation from samsara known as arhatship, the cessation of individual suffering.
41
What do 'coarse true paths' chiefly encompass?
Practices, including the understanding of the selflessness of persons, that lead to arhatship.
42
What is the main emphasis of the Subtle Four Truths, particularly in the Mahayana context?
They include a deeper understanding of suffering related to subtle obscurations and the selflessness (emptiness) of all phenomena, not just persons, for bodhisattvas aiming for buddhahood.
43
Beyond coarse sufferings, what do 'subtle true sufferings' encompass?
The subtle predispositions of ignorance, the appearance of inherent existence even for āryas on the path, and the very nature of conditioned existence being subtly unsatisfactory until full awakening.
44
What are 'subtle true origins'?
The subtle grasping at the inherent existence of phenomena and the cognitive obscurations (jñeyāvaraṇa) that prevent omniscience.
45
What does 'subtle true cessation' signify?
The state of full buddhahood, characterized by the elimination of both afflictive obscurations (kleśāvaraṇa) and cognitive obscurations.
46
What do 'subtle true paths' distinctively involve?
The wisdom realizing the emptiness of all phenomena, conjoined with bodhicitta and the practice of the six (or ten) perfections.
47
How many specific attributes are detailed for the Four Truths in total?
Sixteen attributes, with four attributes for each of the Four Truths.
48
What is the first of the four attributes of True Sufferings?
Impermanence (anitya).
49
What does 'impermanence' as an attribute of True Sufferings teach?
That all conditioned things are constantly changing, arising, and ceasing, and are not static or reliable.
50
What mistaken view does meditating on the attribute of impermanence help to counter?
The illusion of permanence and solidity in samsaric experiences.
51
What is the second of the four attributes of True Sufferings?
Suffering (duhkha).
52
What does 'suffering' as an attribute of True Sufferings emphasize?
That all contaminated conditioned phenomena are pervaded by an unsatisfactory nature, not just overt pain.
53
What mistaken view does meditating on the attribute of suffering help to counter?
The illusion that conditioned existence and its pleasures can provide lasting, true happiness.
54
What is the third of the four attributes of True Sufferings?
Emptiness (śūnya).
55
Regarding True Sufferings, what does the attribute 'emptiness' (śūnya) signify about the self or 'I'?
That the person or 'I' is empty of being a permanent, partless, independent, or self-sufficient entity that owns or controls the aggregates.
56
What mistaken view does meditating on 'emptiness' as an attribute of True Sufferings help to counter?
The grasping at a truly existent, independent 'I' that is wrongly associated with the aggregates.
57
What is the fourth of the four attributes of True Sufferings?
Selflessness (anātmaka).
58
Regarding True Sufferings, what does the attribute 'selflessness' (anātmaka) signify about phenomena (including the aggregates)?
That all phenomena, including the psychophysical aggregates, lack an inherent, findable self, essence, or independent controller.
59
What mistaken view does meditating on 'selflessness' as an attribute of True Sufferings help to counter?
The grasping at phenomena as possessing their own intrinsic, independent reality or being under the control of an intrinsic self.
60
What is the first of the four attributes of True Origins?
Cause (hetu).
61
What does 'cause' as an attribute of True Origins indicate about afflictions and karma?
They are the direct and principal causes that actively produce future suffering, much like a seed produces a sprout.
62
What is the second of the four attributes of True Origins?
Origin (samudaya).
63
What does 'origin' as an attribute of True Origins indicate about afflictions and karma?
They are the continuous and repeated source from which all varieties of suffering arise again and again.
64
What is the third of the four attributes of True Origins?
Strong Producer (prabhava).
65
What does 'strong producer' as an attribute of True Origins indicate about afflictions and karma?
They have the power to forcefully and intensely bring about diverse and pervasive sufferings.
66
What is the fourth of the four attributes of True Origins?
Condition (pratyaya).
67
What does 'condition' as an attribute of True Origins indicate about afflictions and karma?
They act as indispensable cooperative conditions that support and sustain the cycle of suffering.
68
What is the first of the four attributes of True Cessations?
Cessation (nirodha).
69
What does 'cessation' as an attribute of True Cessations mean?
It refers to the actual state where afflictions have been completely pacified and all suffering has definitively ceased to arise.
70
What is the second of the four attributes of True Cessations?
Peace (śānta).
71
What does 'peace' as an attribute of True Cessations signify?
It is a state of profound and ultimate tranquility, free from the disturbance and turmoil of afflictions and suffering.
72
What is the third of the four attributes of True Cessations?
Sublime or Excellent (praṇīta).
73
What does 'sublime/excellent' as an attribute of True Cessations signify?
It is the highest, most exquisite, and unsurpassed state of well-being and freedom.
74
What is the fourth of the four attributes of True Cessations?
Definite Emergence or Escape (niḥsaraṇa).
75
What does 'definite emergence/escape' as an attribute of True Cessations signify?
It is a true, certain, and irreversible liberation from the entirety of cyclic existence (samsara).
76
What is the first of the four attributes of True Paths?
Path (mārga).
77
What does 'path' as an attribute of True Paths mean?
It is the actual spiritual way or method that directly leads one out of samsara towards nirvana.
78
What is the second of the four attributes of True Paths?
Correct Method or Suitability (nyāya/pratipad).
79
What does 'correct method' as an attribute of True Paths signify?
It is the appropriate, logical, and effective means to achieve liberation, as it directly counteracts the root of suffering (ignorance).
80
What is the third of the four attributes of True Paths?
Achiever or Clear (sādhana/gamika).
81
What does 'achiever/clear' as an attribute of True Paths signify?
It effectively accomplishes the goal of reaching True Cessation and enables a clear, direct realization of reality.
82
What is the fourth of the four attributes of True Paths?
Deliverer or Removes (nairyāṇika/apavarga).
83
What does 'deliverer/removes' as an attribute of True Paths signify?
It definitively leads out of and away from cyclic existence, removing all obscurations and suffering.
84
According to the Prāsaṅgika school's perspective, what is the ultimate root of all sufferings and unsatisfactory circumstances in cyclic existence?
Self-grasping ignorance, specifically the grasping at the objective or inherent existence of persons and phenomena.
85
What fundamental misconception underpins our reactive emotions such as craving, anger, jealousy, and arrogance?
The grasping at objective or inherent existence.
86
What is the primary effect of cultivating the wisdom understanding emptiness?
It undermines and eventually eradicates self-grasping ignorance.
87
What is the practical, transformative impact of familiarizing oneself with the understanding of emptiness over time?
A progressive reduction in the influence of afflictions and the development of a more peaceful and compassionate mind.
88
What ceases when afflictions have been eliminated through wisdom?
The creation of new polluted karma (actions motivated by afflictions) ceases.
89
What is the consequence of ceasing polluted actions and eliminating afflictions?
Rebirth in samsara, which is driven by afflictions and karma, comes to an end.
90
Who are ārya beings in the context of the Four Truths?
Those who have had a direct, non-conceptual meditative realization of emptiness, the ultimate nature of reality.
91
What common feeling arises when we say, 'At the time I was born...'?
A sense that there was a self present at birth which is the same self existing now.
92
Upon what basis is the conventional self designated?
The psychophysical aggregates (body and mind).
93
What specific mental factor must be eliminated to achieve True Cessation?
Ignorance (avidyā), particularly the ignorance grasping at inherent existence.
94
What are the three principal trainings that encompass the True Path?
Higher training in ethical conduct, higher training in concentration, and higher training in wisdom.
95
For whom are the coarse Four Truths primarily expounded?
Practitioners of the Fundamental Vehicle (often referred to as Hinayana).
96
What is the principal spiritual aspiration of those who focus primarily on the coarse Four Truths?
To attain personal liberation from samsara, known as arhatship.
97
For whom are the subtle Four Truths particularly significant?
Practitioners of the Mahayana (Great Vehicle), i.e., bodhisattvas.
98
What is the ultimate spiritual aspiration of those who focus on the subtle Four Truths?
To attain full buddhahood (omniscience and complete liberation) for the benefit of all sentient beings.
99
What are the two main categories of obscurations that are overcome by bodhisattvas and buddhas?
Afflictive obscurations (kleśāvaraṇa – which prevent liberation) and cognitive obscurations (jñeyāvaraṇa – which prevent omniscience).
100
What is the purpose of meditating on the sixteen attributes of the Four Truths?
To deepen and refine one's understanding and realization of each of the Four Truths.
101
The attribute 'impermanence' (of True Sufferings) helps to counter the mistaken perception of conditioned things as being what?
Permanent, stable, or unchanging.
102
The attribute 'suffering' (of True Sufferings) helps to counter the mistaken perception that samsaric experiences can provide what?
True, lasting, and reliable happiness or satisfaction.
103
The attribute 'emptiness' (of True Sufferings) refers to the aggregates and the self designated upon them lacking what?
An inherent existence as a permanent, unitary, independent, or self-governing entity.
104
The attribute 'selflessness' (anātmaka, of True Sufferings) refers to all phenomena lacking what?
An intrinsic, findable self, essence, or independent mode of being.
105
True Origins are described as 'cause' (hetu) because they directly and actively do what?
Produce future instances of suffering.
106
True Origins are described as 'origin' (samudaya) because they serve as a continuous and prolific source for what?
The repeated arising of various forms of suffering.
107
True Origins are designated 'strong producers' (prabhava) because they bring about suffering in what manner?
With force, intensity, and pervasiveness.
108
True Origins function as 'conditions' (pratyaya) by providing what for the continuation of suffering?
The necessary support and circumstances for suffering to perpetuate.
109
True Cessations are termed 'cessation' (nirodha) because in this state, afflictions and suffering are what?
Completely and definitively pacified and have come to an end.
110
True Cessations are described as 'peace' (śānta) because they are entirely free from what?
The disturbance, agitation, and turmoil of afflictions and the resultant suffering.
111
True Cessations are deemed 'sublime' or 'excellent' (praṇīta) because they represent what level of well-being?
The highest, most supreme, and unsurpassed state of spiritual attainment and freedom.
112
True Cessations are known as 'definite emergence' or 'escape' (niḥsaraṇa) because they provide what from samsara?
A certain, irreversible, and complete liberation from the cycle of conditioned existence.
113
True Paths are called 'path' (mārga) because they serve as the spiritual conduit leading where?
From the state of samsaric suffering to the state of nirvanic liberation.
114
True Paths are 'correct method' or 'suitable' (nyāya/pratipad) because they appropriately and directly counteract what?
Ignorance, the fundamental root of all suffering.
115
True Paths are the 'achiever' or 'clear' (sādhana/gamika) because they effectively accomplish what spiritual goal?
The attainment of True Cessation and bring about a clear, non-deceptive realization of reality.
116
True Paths are the 'deliverer' or that which 'removes' (nairyāṇika/apavarga) because they definitively lead one out of and free one from what?
Cyclic existence and its associated obscurations and sufferings.
117
What is the most fundamental cause of being trapped in cyclic existence (samsara)?
The ignorance that grasps at an inherently existent self (ātmagrāha) and inherently existent phenomena (dharmagrāha).
118
What is the direct and primary antidote to this fundamental ignorance?
The wisdom (prajñā) that realizes emptiness (śūnyatā) – the lack of inherent existence.
119
What is the literal meaning of 'dukkha' beyond just 'suffering'?
It implies a fundamental 'unsatisfactoriness' or 'incapability of providing lasting happiness' inherent in conditioned existence.
120
What does 'samudaya' (origin) literally suggest?
'Arising together' or 'coming forth together,' indicating that causes and conditions give rise to suffering.
121
What does 'nirodha' (cessation) literally imply?
'Stopping,' 'restriction,' or 'confinement,' referring to the end of suffering and its causes.
122
What does 'magga' (path) literally mean in this context?
'Road,' 'way,' or 'course,' indicating the practices one undertakes to achieve liberation.
123
What are the 'three primary types of suffering' often enumerated within the First Noble Truth?
The suffering of suffering (dukkha-dukkha, i.e., overt pain), the suffering of change (vipariṇāma-duhkha, i.e., pleasant things being impermanent and thus unsatisfactory), and pervasive compositional suffering (saṃskāra-duhkha).
124
What is 'pervasive compositional suffering' (saṃskāra-duhkha)?
The fundamental unsatisfactoriness of being conditioned by and under the control of afflictions and karma, which pervades all our aggregates and samsaric experiences.
125
Are the Four Truths meant to be accepted as articles of faith without critical examination?
No, they are presented as facts to be investigated, understood, and directly realized through study, contemplation, and meditation, particularly as exemplified by the āryas' direct perception.
126
What is the relationship between the conventionally existing 'self' and the five aggregates (skandhas)?
The self is designated in dependence upon the aggregates; it is neither identical to the aggregates nor completely separate from them as an inherently real entity.
127
Does the realization of the selflessness of persons (pudgalanairātmya), characteristic of the arhat path, eliminate all obscurations?
It eliminates the afflictive obscurations (kleśāvaraṇa) and leads to liberation from samsara (arhatship), but it does not eliminate the subtle cognitive obscurations (jñeyāvaraṇa) which prevent full omniscience.
128
For the attainment of Buddhahood, what deeper understanding of selflessness is required beyond the selflessness of persons?
The understanding of the selflessness of all phenomena (dharmanairātmya), meaning the emptiness of inherent existence of all things.
129
How does the wisdom understanding emptiness serve as a direct antidote?
It directly opposes and undermines the ignorance that misapprehends the nature of reality (i.e., grasping at inherent existence), which is the root of all suffering.
130
Can ordinary sentient beings initially perceive the Four Truths with the same directness as ārya beings?
No, ordinary beings typically begin by understanding the Four Truths conceptually through learning and reflection, whereas āryas perceive their meaning directly and non-conceptually in meditation.
131
Is the 'self' or 'person' that continues after the attainment of Buddhahood the same as the afflicted self that experiences samsara?
No, the Buddha is a 'person' conventionally, but this is a purified conventional self, entirely free from afflictions, the grip of self-grasping ignorance, and the causes of uncontrolled rebirth.
132
Why is 'definite emergence' (niḥsaraṇa) considered a crucial attribute of True Cessations?
It emphasizes that nirvana is not merely a temporary respite or suppression of suffering but a permanent, irreversible, and complete liberation from the entire cycle of samsara.
133
The attribute 'correct method' (nyāya) for True Paths implies that other spiritual paths or methods might be what in comparison?
They might be incorrect, incomplete, or less effective in leading to the ultimate goal of True Cessation and full awakening.
134
What is the difference between the 'person' and the 'self' in Buddhist philosophy?
Often used interchangeably for the conventional individual, but 'self' (ātman) is particularly examined and refuted when it implies a permanent, independent, unitary soul or essence, while the 'person' (pudgala) is accepted conventionally as a dependent designation.
135
How does one begin to 'know' true sufferings?
By contemplating their pervasive nature in one's own life and the lives of others, reflecting on impermanence, and the subtle ways even pleasant experiences are bound with unsatisfactoriness.
136
What is an example of an 'affliction' (klesha)?
Ignorance, attachment (desire), anger (aversion), pride, jealousy, or afflicted doubt.
137
Is True Cessation a blank nothingness?
No, it is the cessation of suffering and its causes, a state of ultimate peace, freedom, and profound wisdom, not mere annihilation.
138
Does the path to nirvana require abandoning the world?
It requires abandoning the afflictions and the grasping that bind one to samsaric suffering, but the Mahayana path emphasizes engaging skillfully in the world with compassion for the benefit of all beings.
139
What is the ultimate object that ārya beings directly perceive as true when they realize the Four Truths?
The ultimate nature, or emptiness, of all persons and phenomena.
140
What spectrum of experience does the framework of the Four Truths encompass regarding the merely designated self?
It describes both the unawakened experiences within samsara and the awakened experiences culminating in nirvana and buddhahood.
141
What common linguistic habit illustrates the innate human tendency to grasp at a continuously existing, independent self?
Phrases like 'When I was born...' or 'The me of yesterday,' which imply a static self that has persisted unchanged through time.
142
When Buddhist philosophy states that a self independent of body and mind cannot be found, what is the primary method of this investigation?
It is not discoverable through ultimate analysis, which systematically searches for such an intrinsically existing entity among or apart from its constituents.
143
What specific characteristic of ordinary contaminated happiness makes it an example of the 'suffering of change' (vipariṇāma-dukkha)?
Its impermanent nature; because it does not last and eventually turns into dissatisfaction, it is a form of suffering.
144
What fundamentally defines 'pervasive compositional suffering' (saṃskāra-dukkha) in relation to our conditioned existence?
It is the suffering of being under the control of afflictions (kleshas) and karma, and consequently having psychophysical aggregates that are the product and basis for further suffering.
145
What is the active method for abandoning or eliminating True Origins (samudāya)?
It involves applying their specific antidotes, the principal antidote being the wisdom (prajñā) that directly realizes emptiness (śūnyatā).
146
How is the state of True Cessations (nirodha) brought into direct experience or actualized?
It is actualized by thoroughly abandoning its causes (True Origins) through the sustained and diligent cultivation of the True Paths (mārga).
147
In what manner are True Paths (mārga) to be relied upon or cultivated for them to be effective?
They are to be actively cultivated and experientially integrated into one's own mindstream through consistent practice.
148
What is the primary reason the 'coarse' Four Truths are described as 'coarse' in contrast to the 'subtle' ones?
They are generally considered easier to initially comprehend and are focused on more evident aspects of suffering and liberation, as compared to the subtle Four Truths which involve deeper insights into emptiness.
149
What do 'subtle true origins' encompass that goes beyond the more obvious afflictions and their resultant karma?
They include the subtle seeds or latencies of afflictions and, most significantly, the subtle grasping at the inherent existence of phenomena, which is a primary cognitive obscuration (jñeyāvaraṇa).
150
What is the principal aim of contemplating the sixteen attributes of the Four Noble Truths in meditation?
To deepen and refine one's inferential understanding and to prepare for a direct meditative realization of each of the Four Truths.
151
What specific and common mistaken conception is directly countered by meditating on the attribute of 'impermanence' (anitya) of True Sufferings?
The mistaken conception that our physical body, our mind, our possessions, and our loved ones are permanent, stable, and unchanging.
152
What specific and pervasive mistaken idea is directly countered by meditating on the attribute of 'suffering' (duhkha) of True Sufferings?
The mistaken idea that contaminated phenomena, particularly samsaric pleasures and worldly achievements, are sources of genuine, lasting happiness and satisfaction.
153
What precise understanding of a 'real I' is refuted by meditating on the attribute 'emptiness' (śūnya) as it pertains to True Sufferings?
The notion of an 'I' that is permanent (not changing moment by moment), partless (a monolithic entity), and independent of the aggregates, or an 'I' that is self-sufficient and substantially existent in its own right.
154
What erroneous view regarding the psychophysical aggregates is countered by meditating on their attribute of 'selflessness' (anātmaka) under the topic of True Sufferings?
Grasping at the aggregates (form, feeling, perception, mental formations, consciousness) as being or containing a self that is an independent master or controller, existing separately from causes and conditions, or possessing inherent existence.
155
What overarching understanding is cultivated by studying the four attributes of True Origins (Cause, Origin, Strong Producer, Condition)?
A comprehensive understanding of the various ways in which afflictions and karma function as the multifaceted causes and conditions that inevitably produce suffering.
156
What is the primary psychological benefit of deeply contemplating the four attributes of True Cessations (Cessation, Peace, Sublime, Definite Emergence)?
It helps to cultivate a powerful and joyful aspiration to attain the state of cessation by vividly recognizing its profound qualities of peace, freedom, and ultimate well-being.
157
What crucial understanding about the spiritual journey is fostered by studying the four attributes of True Paths (Path, Correct Method, Achiever, Deliverer)?
An understanding of how the true paths actively function as the means to transport oneself from the state of suffering to the state of irreversible liberation.
158
What are the 'four distorted conceptions' (viparyāsas) which are fundamentally overcome by the wisdom understanding emptiness?
Grasping that which is suffering as happiness; that which is impermanent as permanent; that which is impure as pure; and that which lacks a self (is selfless or empty) as possessing a self.
159
According to the Prāsaṅgika Madhyamaka view, what is the ultimate cognitive error that underpins all our reactive emotional responses such as craving, anger, and pride?
The innate grasping at the objective, findable, or inherent existence of persons and phenomena.
160
In Buddhist philosophical analysis, what specific 'self' is identified as the object whose emptiness (śūnyatā) is to be realized?
The conventionally existent 'I' or person, the very self that we instinctively feel exists and refer to in daily life.
161
What kind of 'self' is precisely identified as the 'object of negation' (pratiṣedhya) when meditating on emptiness to realize selflessness?
An inherently existent self – that is, a self that is imagined to exist from its own side, under its own power, independent of its basis of designation (the aggregates) or the mind that conceptualizes and designates it.
162
According to the Madhyamaka school, particularly the Prāsaṅgika subschool, does the 'I' or self exist in any way?
Yes, the 'I' or self undeniably exists conventionally (saṃvṛti-sat) as a dependent arising, a valid designation, but it does not exist ultimately (paramārtha-sat) or inherently.
163
Why is the correct and precise identification of the 'object of negation' so critical when undertaking the meditation on emptiness?
To avoid the extreme of nihilism (by negating the conventional existence of the self and phenomena) or the extreme of eternalism/reification (by failing to negate the fantasized inherent existence of the self and phenomena).
164
If the self were an intrinsically permanent and unchanging entity, as some philosophical schools assert, what basic human capability would it logically be incapable of possessing?
It would be incapable of performing functions that inherently involve change from moment to moment, such as learning, remembering, making decisions, or adapting to new situations.
165
If the self were a truly partless, monolithic, unitary entity, what common everyday experiences would become rationally inexplicable?
The ability to engage with multiple objects or tasks simultaneously, or to possess various aspects, diverse thoughts, conflicting emotions, or different skills.
166
In the context of refuting an independent self, what does 'independent' specifically imply that is being negated?
It implies a self that does not depend on causes and conditions for its arising, does not depend on its constituent parts (such as the aggregates), or does not depend on the consciousness that conceptualizes and designates it.
167
How does the fundamental ignorance (avidyā) primarily grasp its object, for instance, the 'I' or other phenomena?
Ignorance apprehends its object (e.g., an inherently existent 'I') as if that mode of existence were true and findable, whereas, in reality, such inherent existence is a mere fabrication of the mind and does not exist at all.
168
What is 'inappropriate attention' (ayoniso manasikāra), and what specific role does it play in the arising and strengthening of mental afflictions (kleshas)?
It is a distorted way of mentally engaging with an object, by focusing on and exaggerating fantasized positive or negative qualities that the object does not actually possess, thereby triggering and fueling afflictions like attachment or aversion.
169
What is the crucial difference between the innate (sahaja) form of self-grasping and the philosophically or intellectually acquired (parikalpita) form of self-grasping?
Innate self-grasping is the pre-philosophical, instinctive, and universal feeling of an inherently existent 'I'. Philosophically acquired self-grasping is a conception of the self that is learned and reinforced by specific philosophical or ideological tenets asserting a particular kind of essential self.
170
Between innate self-grasping and philosophically acquired self-grasping, which one is considered the more fundamental and pervasive root of cyclic existence (samsara)?
Innate self-grasping (sahaja-ātmāgraha) is considered the fundamental root because it is present even in those who have not studied philosophy.
171
What are the 'two truths' (satyadvaya) as expounded in the Madhyamaka philosophical system?
They are conventional truths (saṃvṛti-satya), which pertain to how things appear and function reliably in the empirical world of dependent arisings, and ultimate truths (paramārtha-satya), which pertain to the final nature of all phenomena – their emptiness of inherent existence.
172
How can the Four Noble Truths be understood in relation to the doctrine of the two truths?
Generally, True Sufferings and True Origins (the problem and its cause) are primarily understood as conventional truths. True Cessations (the goal) are primarily ultimate truths, as nirvana involves the direct realization of emptiness. True Paths (the solution) have aspects of both: conventional methods like ethical conduct and concentration, and ultimate wisdom realizing emptiness.
173
What is the most profound meaning of 'dependent arising' (pratītyasamutpāda) according to the Madhyamaka school, especially as emphasized by Nāgārjuna and Candrakīrti?
It signifies that precisely because all phenomena arise and exist in dependence on other factors (causes, parts, designation), they are necessarily empty of any independent or inherent existence. Dependent arising is the king of reasons proving emptiness.
174
What are the three principal types of dependence that are often highlighted in Tibetan Buddhist scholastic explanations of dependent arising, following Lama Tsongkhapa's presentation?
1. Dependence on causes and conditions for production; 2. Dependence of a whole on its parts and of parts on a whole; 3. Dependence on imputation or designation by term and concept (consciousness).
175
What does the 'selflessness of phenomena' (dharma-nairātmya) assert, which goes beyond the 'selflessness of persons' (pudgala-nairātmya)?
The selflessness of phenomena asserts that not only persons (the 'I') but all other phenomena—such as the psychophysical aggregates, external objects, and even nirvana itself—are empty of inherent or independent existence.
176
For a Buddhist practitioner who is characterized as being of 'initial capacity' (adhimuktika), what is the primary practical focus concerning the Four Noble Truths?
Their main focus is on understanding the sufferings of the lower realms of rebirth, recognizing that their causes lie in negative karma driven by afflictions, and thereby striving to accumulate positive karma to attain a favorable rebirth, particularly a precious human rebirth.
177
For a Buddhist practitioner of 'middling capacity,' what is the core motivation and the scope of their understanding of the Four Noble Truths?
Their motivation is the definite emergence from all of samsara. They understand that all forms of cyclic existence, even heavenly realms, are pervaded by suffering. They identify afflictions and karma as the roots of this suffering and aim for personal liberation (nirvana or arhatship).
178
How does a Buddhist practitioner of 'great capacity' (a Mahayana practitioner or bodhisattva) uniquely engage with and apply the Four Noble Truths?
They understand the Four Truths in the universal context of the suffering experienced by all sentient beings. Their aim is not just personal liberation but the attainment of full Buddhahood (a more profound and complete cessation) by cultivating the Mahayana path (which includes great compassion, bodhicitta, and the six perfections) in order to be able to liberate all beings.
179
What fundamental attitude or mental state towards cyclic existence (samsara) is methodically cultivated by deeply reflecting on the first two Noble Truths (True Sufferings and True Origins)?
Renunciation (niḥsaraṇa), which is the strong and stable determination to be free from the entirety of cyclic existence and its underlying causes.
180
What primary spiritual aspiration or confidence is nurtured by deeply reflecting on the latter two Noble Truths (True Cessations and True Paths)?
The aspiration to attain genuine liberation (True Cessation) and the unwavering confidence (śraddhā) that this liberation is possible through the sincere and correct cultivation of the True Path.
181
What does the term 'merely designated self' imply about the nature of the self?
It implies that the self exists not from its own side or as an inherent entity, but as a valid imputation or designation made by thought and language in dependence upon the psychophysical aggregates.
182
Why is an ārya's seeing of the Four Truths considered more definitive than an ordinary being's understanding?
An ārya perceives the truths directly, non-conceptually, and infallibly through meditative wisdom, whereas an ordinary being initially understands them conceptually and inferentially.
183
In the context of True Sufferings, how does the 'emptiness' attribute differ from the 'selflessness' attribute, if at all?
Often, 'emptiness' (śūnya) here refers to the person being empty of being a permanent, partless, independent self that *owns* or *is possessed by* the aggregates in an inherent way. 'Selflessness' (anātmaka) emphasizes the aggregates themselves are empty of *being* such a self or a master. The distinction can be subtle and school-dependent, but both point to the lack of a findable, inherent self.
184
Can True Cessations be experienced before all True Origins are completely abandoned?
Partial cessations or temporary suppressions of afflictions can be experienced, but true, irreversible Cessation (Nirvana) is only actualized when its corresponding origins are fully and irreversibly abandoned through the Path.
