Skeletal System (Exam II) Flashcards
1
Q
Primary function of bone
A
Support
Locomotion/movement
2
Q
Secondary function of bone
A
Protection
Mineral storage
Hemopoiesis
3
Q
Bone is ______ while cartilage is _____
A
Rigid; semi-rigid
4
Q
Both bone, and cartilage are derived from:
A
Primitive mesenchymal cells
5
Q
Relative strength of bone and cartilage is due to:
A
Properties of ground substance and extracellular fibers
6
Q
Bone precursor
A
Cartilage
7
Q
Cartilage formation begins with _____ cells which differentiate into _____
A
Stellate mesenchymal cells; rounded chondroblasts
8
Q
The rounded chondroblasts of cartilage grown and synthesize:
A
Ground substance and fibrous ECM
9
Q
What happens when the chondroblasts grow and synthesize ground substance and fibrous ECM
A
The chondroblasts get trapped in the lacunae
10
Q
In cartilage, further mitotic divisions produce clusters of mature ____ referred to as ____
A
Chondrocytes; isogenous groups
11
Q
Isogenous groups of chondrocytes are separated by
A
Extracellular matrix
12
Q
ECM surrounding the isogenous groups of chondrocytes
A
Territorial
13
Q
Pink ECM between the isogenous groups of chondrocytes
A
Interterritorial ECM
14
Q
Surrounds cartilage
A
Perichondrium
15
Q
Peripheral zone of dense connective tissue, containing fibroblasts, collagen & immature chondroblasts
A
Perichondrium
16
Q
Type of growth in which new cartilage forms within a mass
A
Interstitial growth
17
Q
Type of growth that allows chondrocytes to retain the ability to divide
A
Interstitial growth
18
Q
Type of growth in which new cartilage forms at surface of pre-existing cartilage
A
Appositional growth
19
Q
Type of cartilage growth that is most common
A
Appositional growth
20
Q
In Appositional growth, new chondrocytes are derive from mesenchymal cells of the:
A
Inner periochondrium
21
Q
In Appositional growth, the new chondrocytes derived from mesenchymal cells of inner perichondrium differentiate first into:
A
Chondroblasts
22
Q
In appositional growth, more mature chondrocytes present at _______ while the younger cells present at the _______
A
Center of cartilage mass
Periphery
23
Q
Bone growth can be directly ______ cells —-> _____ OR _____ cells —> ______ to _____
A
Mesenchymal cells —> bone
Mesenchymal cells —> cartilage —-> bone
24
Q
What is found in the perichondrium (peripheral zone of dense connective tissue)
A
- Fibroblasts
- Collagen
- Immature chondroblasts
25
Type of connective tissue cartilage is classified as
Avascular connective tissue
26
Cartilage lacks:
Blood vessels
27
Due to the lack of blood vessels, exchange of metabolites occurs through:
Diffusion through ground substance
28
Due to cartilage relying on diffusion of metabolites through the ground substance this limits the:
Thickness
29
If cartilage is thick it will have blood vessels in:
Secondary cartilage canals
30
Cartilage contains an ECM of ________ containing _____
Amorphous ground substance containing collagen
31
The ECM of cartilage is hydrated and contains ~60-80% h2o bound to:
Proteoglycans
32
The hydration status of the matrix account for its (2):
Flexibility
Incompressibility
33
The GAGs found in cartilage (3):
1. Hyaluronic acid (non-sulfated)
2. Chondroitin sulfate
3. Heparin sulfate
34
Most common glycoproteins in cartilage
Chondronectin
35
Potentially chondronectin could have:
Anti-cancer properties
36
Determines the variable types of cartilage:
Amounts of fibers embedded in matrix
37
Type of cartilage found in articular surfaces, growth plates, nasal septum, costal cartilage (ribs), tracheal & bronchial rings
Hyaline cartilage
38
The precursor for bone in most skeleton
Hyaline cartilage
39
Collagen type that is characterized by small aggregates of chondrocytes in amorphous matrix of ground substance, reinforced with type II collagen fibers
Hyaline cartilage
40
Type of collagen fibers present in hyaline cartilage
Type II Collagen
41
Most prevalent type of cartilage
Hyaline
42
Greek term hylos means:
Glass-look
43
Type of cartilage found in:
End of long bones
Growth plate
Nasal septum
Articular surfaces
Octal cartilages
Tracheal/bronchial rings
Hyaline cartilage
44
common precursor for bone in the skeleton
Hyaline cartilage
45
Consists of alternating layers of hyaline cartilage & dense connective tissue
Fibrocartilage
46
Type of collagen fibers present in fibrocartilage
Type I & II collagen
47
Fibrocartilage is less ____ than the other types of cartilage
Cellular
48
Fibrocartilage lacks ____
Perichondrium
49
Type of cartilage found in intervertebral discs
Fibrocartilage
50
Type of cartilage found in these articular areas: knee, mandible (TMJ), shoulder, sternum, ligaments, tendons, joint capsules, pubic symphysis
Fibrocartilage
51
Cartilage that is histologically similar to hyaline cartilage with addition of large numbers of elastic fibers in ECM
Elastic cartilage
52
Type of collagen fibers present in elastic cartilage
Type II
53
Type of cartilage found in the external ear, auditory & eustacian canals, epiglottis & larynx
Elastic cartilage
54
Type of cartilage that has a very limited distribution throughout the body
Elastic cartilage
55
______ of cartilage is limited because it requires blood flow
Repair
56
Repair in cartilage is limited, because repair requires blood flow; this results in:
Production of dense connective tissue (fibrosis)
57
Invasion of cartilagenous site by blood vessels frequently results in (2):
1. Death of chondrocytes
2. Formation of bone
58
There is a tendency for all hyaline cartilage to:
Calcify with age
59
The calcification of hyaline cartilage is due to the deposition of ______ within the matrix
Calcium phosphate crystals
60
The deposition of calcium phosphate crystals within the matrix of hyaline cartilage eventually results in:
Bone
61
Most common repair of cartilage is done via:
Fibrosis
62
In the healing process of cartilage, the chondrocytes get replaced with:
Osteocytes
63
Old people are often stiff because they do not have the same amount of ______ in their cartilage as younger people do
Turgor pressure
64
Specialized support tissue in which the extracellular components are mineralized
Bone
65
Two characteristics of bone
Strength
Rigidity
66
Two main forms of bone:
Woven
Lamellar
67
Immature form of bone characterized by random orientation of collagen fibers
Woven
68
Describe the orientation of collagen fibers in woven bone
Random (disorganized)
69
Immature woven bone is later remodeled into:
Lamellar bone
70
Lamellar bone contains concentric layers called:
Circumferential lamellae
71
In lamellar bone, the collagen fibers of the circumferential lamellae are oriented:
Parallel
72
The extracellular component of bone are:
Mineralized
73
Lamellar bone can be either:
Dense & compact
Cancellous & spongy
74
Location we may find dense & compact lamellar bone
Cortex of long bones
75
Location we may find cancellous & spongy lamellar bone
Ends of bones
76
Cancellous bone contains a network of thin, bony _____ and ____
Trabeculae & open spaces
77
Trabeculae of cancellous bone may also be called:
Spicules
78
The open spaces in cancellous bone
Marrow cavity
79
Type of bone found in the limbs
Long bones
80
Shaft of long bones
Dipahysis
81
Diaphysis of long bones is composed of compact bone in the ______ and spongy cancellous bone in the ____
Cortex
Medullary cavity (marrow)
82
Type of marrow contained within long bones
Red & yellow
83
Red bone marrow is:
Hematopoietic
84
Yellow bone marrow is:
Fatty
85
Ends of long bones
Epiphysis
86
The epiphysis of long bones is composed of _____ bone covered with _____
Spongy/cancellous; hyaline articular cartilgae
87
Flared regions between epiphysis and diaphysis
Metaphysis
88
Metaphysics contains _____ if the long bone
Epiphyseal plate
89
The swollen ends of longs bones
Epiphysis
90
External surface of bone is covered by
Periosteum
91
A layer of fibrous connective tissue that covers the external surface of bone
Periosteum
92
Type of cells contained within periosteum
Fibroblasts
Osteoprogenitor cells
93
Internal marrow cavity is lined by
Endosteum
94
Parallel bundles of collagen fibers that extend from the periosteum or muscle tendon & insert into superficial layer of bone
Sharpey’s fibers
95
Sharpey’s fibers provide:
Anchorage and support
96
Resting mesenchymal cells that reside in the periosteum and endosteum
Osteoprogenitor cells
97
Location osteoprogenitor cells reside
Periosteum & endosteum
98
Osteoprogenitor cells can differentiate into:
Osteoblasts and osteocytes
99
Roughly polygonal, mesenchymal cells derived from osteoprogenitor cells
Osteoblasts
100
Osteoblasts are very _____ due to the synthesis of large amounts of protein and proteoglycans
Basophilic
101
Osteoblasts synthesize large amounts of:
Protein & proteoglycans
102
Osteoblasts are responsible for synthesis of ECM and collagen, collectively referred to as:
Osteoid
103
Osteoid is similar to _______ and later mineralized to form _____
Collagen; bone
104
Osteoblasts are responsible for calcification of matrix via secretion of:
Matrix vesicles
105
Matrix vesicles secreted by osteoblasts contains:
Alkaline phosphatase
106
The matrix vesicles bud off the osteoblasts into the matrix causing:
Precipitation of mineral salts
107
Mineral salts that precipitate due to matrix vesicles budding off the osteoblast (2):
Calcium
PO4
108
After the osteoid matrix mineralizes, osteoblasts mature into osteocytes in the:
Lacunae
109
Mature bone cells
Osteocytes
110
Large multinucleate bone cells
Osteoclasts
111
Osteoclasts are likely derived from ______ and have _____ properties
Monocyte-macrophage lineage; phagocytic
112
Osteoclasts are actively involved in:
Resorption & remodeling of bone
113
Location osteoclasts are usually found
Howship’s lacunae or resporption bays
114
What are howships lacunae/resorption bays
Endosteal/periosteal surface depressions
115
Type of cell that functions in calcium homeostasis
Osteoclasts
116
Osteoclasts function in calcium homeostasis by producing:
Organic acids
Lysozymes
117
Modified, folded plasma membrane, containing microvilli-like structures (where the lysozymes & organic acids secreted into the ECS chew away the bone)
Ruffled border
118
Bone serves as a reservoir for _____ and functions in homestasis of _____
Calcium
Calcium
119
Calcium homeostasis is regulated by two antagonistic hormones:
Parthormone & calcitonin
120
Parathromone:
Parathyroid hormone
121
Parathyroid hormone secreted by the:
Parathyroid gland
122
Parathyroid hormone stimulates ____ activity leading to _____
Osteoclasts; bone resorption
123
Parathyroid hormone _____ blood calcium levels and ____ renal excretion of kidneys
Increase
Decrease
124
Calcitonin is secreted by:
Thyroid gland
125
Calcitonin stimulates ______ activity and inhibits _____ activity
Osteoblasts
Osteoclast
126
Calcitonin functions in bone ____
Deposition
127
Calcitonin _____ blood calcium levels
Decreases
128
Pituitary growth hormone
Somatotropin
129
Hormone responsible for stimulating growth, especially epiphyseal cartilage and bone
Somatotropin
130
Somatotropin _____ blood calcium levels
Decreases
131
Oversecretion of somatotropin can lead to ____ or ______
Undersecretion of somatotropin can lead to ____
Gigantism or acromegaly
Pituitary dwarfism
132
The majority of the organic component of compact bone is comprised of _____ synthesized by ____
Type I collagen; osteoblasts
133
GAGs of ground substance consist mostly of (3):
Hyaluronic acid
Chondroitin sulfate
Keratin sulfate
134
Non-collagenous organic molecules include:
Osteocalcin
Osteonectin
Sialoproteins
135
Non-collagenous organic molecule that binds intracellular calcium during mineralization
Osteocalcin
136
Non-collagenous organic molecule bridges/binds collagen and minerals
Osteonectin
137
Non-collagenous organic molecule rich in Salic acid and is concentrated from plasma
Sialoproteins
138
Mineralized component of bone is formed by:
Inorganic salts
139
Inorganic salts that form the mineralized component of bone
Calcium and phosphate
140
Calcium and phosphate form the mineralized portion of bone in the form of:
Hydroxyapatite crystals
141
Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2
Hydroxyapatite crystals
142
Bone also has the affinity for:
Heavy metals & radioactive isotopes
143
Two examples of heavy metals that bone has affinity for
Lead & mercury
144
Type I collagen is the primary ____ in mature bone
Structural protein
145
Compact bone contains _______ systems also called ____
Haversian; osteons
146
Osteons are produced via:
Bony remodeling
147
Removal of existing bone by osteoclasts and redeposition of new bone by osteoclasts
Remodeling
148
In bone remodeling:
_____ is responsible for removal of existing bone
______ is responsible for deposition of new bone
Osteoclasts
Osteoblasts
149
Size of average haversian system is equivalent to the size of:
Osteoclast
150
Outer margin of osteon is delimited by:
Cement line
151
The tunnels created by osteoclasts are invaded by
Osteoblasts
152
Osteoblasts become trapped in _____ in osteoid matrix and market into _____
Lacunae; osteocytes
153
Minute canals connecting osteocytes
Caniliculi
154
Canaliculi contain:
Cytoplasmic extensions of osteocytes
155
When trapped, the osteocytes communicate with eachother via:
Gap junctions
156
Within the center of each osteon is a:
Haversian canal
157
The Haversian canal contains:
Blood vessels and nerves
158
Longitudinal Haversian canals are connected by transverse:
Volkman’s canals
159
What is exchanged through Haversian canals
Waste & nutrients
160
Haversian systems are oriented:
Parallel to the long axis bone
161
Inactive haversian systems
Interstitial systems
162
Type of bone that lack haversian systems
Spongy & woven
163
Haversian systems are only present in ____ bone
Compact lamellar
164
Outer periphery of cortical bone is arranged in:
Circumferential lamellae
165
Cortical bone is also called
Compact lamellar bone
166
Volkman’s canals run:
Perpendicular to the long axis
167
The osteons run through the major lines of _____ through the bone
Tension
168
Bone growth is controlled by (3):
Growth hormones
Thyroid hormones
Sex hormones
169
Replacement of cartilage precursor by bone
Endochondral ossification
170
In endochondral ossification, the resulting woven bone is extensively remodeled by ____ and _____ to form lamellar bone
Resorption & appositional growth
171
Long bones, vertebra, pelvis and base of skull all go through what process of bone growth
Endochondral ossification
172
Direct replacement of mesenchyme by bone; NO cartilage precursor
Intramembranous ossification
173
Mesenchymal cells differentiate into osteoblasts, produce osteoid, later mineralize into bone
Intramembraneous ossification
174
The vault of the skull undergoes what type of bone growth
Intramembranous ossification
175
In endochondral ossification the precursor of long bone is formed of:
Hyaline cartilage
176
Primary center of ossification occurs in:
Mid-diaphysis
177
Osteoprogenitor cells and oseoblasts secrete osteoid which mineralizes, forming:
Periosteal cuff
178
Calcification of cartilage matrix inhibits:
Diffusion of nutrients
179
When diffusion of nutrients is inhibited by calcification of cartilage matrix this results in death of ______ and spread of _____
Chondrocytes
Osteoblasts
180
In Endochondrial ossification the osteoprogenitor cells from the ____ migrate to the ____ along with growing blood vessels
Periosteum; medulla
181
In Endochondral ossification, two _______ occur in the epiphyses
Secondary centers of ossification
182
In endochondral ossification, the primary center of ossification occurs in the ______ while the secondary centers of ossification occurs in the _______
Mid-diaphysis
Epiphysis
183
A region of metaphysis that remains open (unmineralized) in endochondral ossification
Epiphyseal plate
184
The epiphyseal plate allows for continuous:
Longitudinal growth
185
At maturity, hormonal changes decrease _______ and cartilage plate is replace by bone
Cartilage proliferation
186
Closur of epiphysis means complete ____
Ossification
187
The last long bone to close in humans
Femur
188
After closure, the growth plate persists as ____ in metaphysis, visible on X-rays
Epiphyseal plate
189
Type of growth human and mammals have
Determinant growth
190
The epiphyseal growth plate consists of several distinct zones in transition from:
Cartilage to bone
191
Hyaline cartilage with clusters of chondrocytes, no cell proliferation (zone)
Zone of reserve cartilage
192
Successive mitotic division of chondrocytes leading to columns of chondrocytes (zone)
Zone of proliferation
193
Division ceases and chondrocytes increase in size (zone)
Zone of maturation
194
Zone closes to the epiphysis
Zone of reserve cartilage
195
Chondrocytes greatly enlarge, contain large amounts of glycogen and become vacuolated & calcify (zone)
Zone of hypertrophy (and calcification)
196
Capillaries of marrow cavity growth from diaphysis into growth plate (zone)
Zone of (cartilage) degeneration
197
In the zone of degeration, chondrocytes _____ and the lacunae are invaded by ____
Degenerate; osteogenic cells
198
Blood vessels from marrow cavity grow into cartilage mass (zone)
Zone of ossification
199
Osteogenic cells differentiate into osteoblasts, congregate on spicules of calcified cartilage matrix to form bony trabeculae (zone)
Zone of ossification
200
In Intramembranous ossification, mesenchymal cells differentiate directly into:
Osteoblasts
201
During intramembranous ossification the osteoblasts begin synthesize in _____ at multiple sites within the _____
Osteoid; membrane
202
How many centers of ossification occur in intramembranous ossification
Multiple centers of ossification
203
During intramembranous ossification, osteoblasts get trapped in lacunae of osteoid and become:
Osteocytes
204
During intramembranous ossification, ______ cells at the _____ continue to divide, providing replacements
Osteoprogenitor cells; periphery
205
During intramembranous ossification, the bone produced is:
Woven bone
206
During intramembranous ossification, the woven bone is later remodeled by ____ & ____ to form compact bone
Osteoclasts & osteoblast
207
Embryonic undifferentiated cells
Mesenchymal cells
208
During intramembranous ossification what type of cells are located at the periphery
Osteoprogenitor
209
A break in bone with no break in skin
Simple/ closed fracture
210
A break that causes damage to skin, exposing bone
Compound/open fracture
211
Type of break in which bone is broken in several places
Comminuted fracture
212
Following a break, what fills the fracture site:
What does this result in:
Blood
Hematoma
213
Immediately after a fracture, inflammatory response develops leading to:
Pain, swelling, redness & heat
214
The acute phase of a bone break occurs:
First few days after break
215
In the acute phase of a bone break _____ are first to arrive and infiltrate the hematoma
Neutrophils
216
In the acute phase of a bone break, the neutrophils are the first to arrive and:
Infiltrate the hematoma
217
In the acute phase, after the neutrophils infiltrate the hematoma, ______ then come to clean up the site of injury
Macrophages
218
In the acute phase of a bone break, both the neutrophils and macrophages use their _____ properties
Phagocytic
219
After around one week in the acute phase of a bone break, _____ and ____ proliferate and grow into the site
Fibroblasts and capillaries
220
After around one week post-break, the fibroblasts and capillaries grow into the site to form:
Granulation tissue
221
The granulation tissue formed by the fibroblasts and capillaries is ____ tissue
Vascular collagenous tissue
222
Post-break, the granulation tissue becomes progressively more fibrous in the _____ phase
Chronic
223
In the chronic phase post-break, the granulation tissue becomes progressively more fibrous forming:
Fibrous granulation tissue
224
Following the formation of fibrous granulation tissue, mesenchymal cells differentiate into ____ and secrete matrix
Chondroblasts
225
Post-break when the mesenchymal cells differentiate into chondroblasts and secrete matrix, this causes progressive replacement of granulation tissue by ______ forming _____
Hyaline cartilage; provisional callous
226
Following the formation of the provisional callus in bone repair ______ and _____ cells from the endosteum & periosteum at the edge of the wound grow ____
Osteoprogenitor cells and osteoblasts
Inward
227
After the osteoprogenitor cells and osteoblasts grow inward they produce a meshwork of ______ within the provisional callus
Woven bone
228
The osteoprogenitor cells and osteoblasts produce a meshwork of woven bone within the provisional callus and deposit _____ in the collagen matrix
Calcium salts
229
The deposition of calcium slats in the collagen matrix of the woven bone within the provisional callous transforms the provisional callous into a:
Bony callous
230
The bony callous helps to:
Stabilize & bind fracture together
231
When the fracture site is completely bridged by woven bone this is called:
Bony union
232
Bony callous is progressively remodeled to form:
Mature lamellar bone
233
Process of bone repair takes around 6-12 weeks dependent upon:
Severity & location
234
Joint allowing for extensive movement
Synovial
235
Synovial joints are also known as:
Diarthroses
236
Synovial joints (Diarthroses) are surrounded by a:
Connective tissue capsule
237
The connective tissue capsule that surrounds synovial joints:
Joint capsule
238
The synovial joint is lined by a thin discontinuous layer of cells called the:
Synovium
239
The synovium secretes ______ which functions to:
Synovial fluid
Bathes the articular surface
240
Synovial joints have no basement membrane so they do not have a true ____
Epithelium
241
Synovial joints are made up of up to four cell layers of ________ of _____ origin
Synovial cells
Mesenchymal
242
Two of cells in synovial joints:
A & B
243
Type A synoviocytes resemble:
Macrophages
244
Type B synoviocytes resemble:
Fibroblasts
245
Joint characterized by limited movement; joined by dense connective tissue, lacking an articular surface
Nonsynovial
246
Dense fibrous tissue between bone
Syndesmosis
247
In the skull, syndesmosis is progressively replace by bone to become:
Synotosis
248
Synotosis of the skull are also called:
Sutures
249
Primary cartilage joint that contains a single layer of hyaline cartilage
Synchondrosis
250
Type of joint that unites the first rib with the sternum (only one in adult human)
Synchondrosis (primary cartilage joint)
251
Type of cartilage found in synchondrosis
Hyaline
252
Secondary cartilage joint
Symphysis
253
cartilage joint that contains two hyaline cartilage surfaces connected by fibrocartilage
Symphysis
254
Intervertebral discs are a specialized type of:
Symphysis
255
Intervertebral joints contained intervertebral discs that are evolutionarily derived from _____ in _____
Notochords in chordates
256
Intervertebral discs are formed of concentric layers of:
Fibrocartilage
257
Central core viscous ground substance of intervertebral discs
Nucleus pulposis
258
Dense layer that forms around the nucleus pulposis
Annulus fibrosis
259
Damage to the annulus fibrosis causes the nucleus pulposus to _____ resulting in ____
Herniate; herniated disc
260
Inflammation of joints
Arthritis
261
Progressive degeneration and loss of articular cartilage
Osteoarthritis
262
Osteoarthritis leads to:
Eburnation, pitting and erosion
263
The eburnation, pitting & erosion caused by osteoarthritis leads:
Pain, swelling & thickening of joint capsule
264
Production of irregular new bone at the edge of articular surfaces
Osteophytes
265
Osteophytes may be referred to as:
Bone spurs
266
Osteophytes (bone spurs) limit the:
Range of motion
267
Progressive build up of osteophytes, osteoarthritis or trauma can lead to:
Ankylosis
268
Bony fusion of joint with loss of mobility
Anylosis
269
Polishing of articular surface
Eburnation
270
Most common pathology we see of bones
Arthritis
271
Local autoimmune reaction in joints
Rheumatoid arthritis
272
Rheumatoid arthritis is when the body produces _____ that attack the joints
Antibodies
273
In RA, the antibodies that attack the joints leads to pain and damage of the articular cartilage, and thickening and inflammation of the:
Synovial membrane
274
Replacement of the articular cartilage with fibrovascular tissue
Pannus
275
Deposit of urates & uric acid crystals in joints (especially fingers & toes)
Gout
276
Gout is extremely painful and associated with consumption of large quantities of:
Red wine & meat
277
Causative vegetables of gout:
Asparagus, broccoli, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts
278
The certain vegetables associated with gout all represent _____ and are high in ____ and ____
New growth
Protein & nitrogen
279
Bone matrix doesn’t calcify normally in children during growth resulting in softer, deformed bones & can be permanent
Rickets
280
Rickets is due to insufficient dietary:
Calcium or vitamin D
281
In adults, insufficient calcium and vitamin D can lead to:
Osteomalacia
282
Failure of mineralization resulting in the softening of bones in adults (kind of the adult form of rickets)
Osteomalacia
283
Loss of bone mass
Osteoporosis
284
In osteoporosis the _____ by osteoclasts exceeds the _____ by osteoblasts
Resorption; deposition
285
Osteoporosis is a common problems in ______ due to decreased ____
Post-menopausal women; estrogen levels
286
Osteoporosis can be treated by (5): ORAL
1- oral calcium treatment
2- oral vitamin D
3- Chondroitin
4- glucosamine
5- gelatins
287
Fosamax, a newer osteoporosis medication function by binding _____ in the GI tract to minimize _____
Possible side effects includes:
Phosphate; absorption
Mandibular necrosis
288
Vitamin C is necessary for the synthesis of:
Collagen
289
Vitamin C deficiency causes:
Scurvy
290
When the bone matrix is not calcified due to lack of vitamin C:
Scurvy
291
Vitamin D deficiency can also lead to weakening of collagen in:
Ligaments (periodontal ligament)
