Complex Cognition > Task 3 - Problem Solving > Flashcards

Task 3 - Problem Solving Flashcards

(48 cards)

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1
Q

Well-defined problems

A

all aspects of the problem are clearly specified (= initial state, goal, methods available) (e.g. maze or chess)
(used in research as there’s an optimal strategy and errors/deficiencies can easily be identified

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2
Q

Ill-defined problems

A

definition of problem is underspecified, initial state, goal state & methods unclear (e.g. keys locked in car)
(every day problems)

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3
Q

Knowledge-rich problems

A

can only be solved with considerable amounts of prior knowledge

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4
Q

Knowledge-lean problems

A

can be solved without prior knowledge as necessary info is provided by problem statement

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5
Q

Major Aspects of Problem Solving

A
  1. It’s purposeful (goal-directed)
  2. Involves controlled rather than automatic processes
  3. A problem only exists if someone lacks the relevant knowledge to produce an immediate solution
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6
Q

Factors Influencing Problem-Solving

A
  1. Past experience
  2. Incubation
  3. Expertise
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7
Q

functional fixedness – (Past experience)

A

fail to solve a problem because we assume from past experience that any given object has a limited number of uses (e.g. candle and box of nails - Duncker problem)

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8
Q

Einstellung – (Past experience)

A

mental set in which people use a familiar strategy even where there is a simpler alternative or the problem cannot be solved using it

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9
Q

Incubation

A

the finding that a problem is solved more easily when it is put away for some time (Wallas)

  • fairly small but highly significant effect
  • -> stronger effect for creative problems with multiple solutions & when long preparation time prior to
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10
Q

Incubation (Wallas vs Simon)

A
  • Wallace: subconscious keeps processing
  • Simon: forget control information which makes it easier to adopt a new approach
  • —– Support: in an experiment there was an effect only when the break allowed misleading information to be forgotten
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11
Q

Expertise

Chunking theory

A

memory chunks contain more information & more chunks are stored

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12
Q

Expertise

Template theory

A

chunks that are used frequently develop into more complex data structures –> few large templates (=more general_ rather than large number of chunks
— Template = core (= similar to fixed info stored in chunks) + slots (=contain variable info) thus are more flexible

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13
Q

Expertise

Routine expertise

A

using acquired knowledge to solve familiar problems efficiently (focus of template theory)

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14
Q

Expertise

Adaptive Expertise

A

using acquired knowledge to develop strategies for dealing with novel problems

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15
Q

Gestalt approach

A
  • Productive thinking (solving a problem with insight)
  • – Duncker problem (with candle, box and nails)

Predecessor

  • Reproductive thinking (solving a problem with previous experience and what is known)
  • – Trial-and-error learning
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16
Q

Trial-and-error learning

A

a solution is reached by producing fairly random responses rather than by a process of thought

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17
Q

Reproductive thinking

A

re-use of previous experiences/ knowledge to solve a current problem (Thorndike’s cat experiment)

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18
Q

Productive thinking

A

solving a problem by developing an understanding of the problem’s underlying structure (Gestalt approach)

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19
Q

Representational Change Theory (Ohlsson)

A
  • activation of new network
  • largely based on gestalt approach combined with information-processing approach, emphasising insight –> difference to gestalt: more detailed explanation of how one gets to insight
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20
Q

Ways of changing a problem representation

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A
  1. Elaboration / additional info
  2. Constraint relaxation: inhibitions on what is regarded as permissible are removed
  3. Re-encoding: some aspect of the problem is reinterpreted
21
Q

Limitations of Representational Change Theory

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A
  • Often not possible to predict when/how the representation of a problem will change
  • Single-factor theory – constraint relaxation as single solution to insight problems (actually only has modestly beneficial effect)
  • De-emphasised individual differences
22
Q

Problem Space Hypothesis
(Newell & Simon)
Problem space

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A

an abstract description of all the possible states that can occur in a problem situation
- Rely heavily on heuristics (= rules of thumb) that produce approx. accurate answers (unlike algorithms that guarantee solution)

23
Q

Means-ends analysis

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A

heuristic method based on creating a sub-goal to reduce the difference between the current & goal state

24
Q

Hill climbing

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A

change the present state of a problem into one apparently closer to the goal (e.g. maze) simpler than means-ends

25
Progress monitoring
insufficiently rapid progress toward solution leads to the adaption of a different strategy - -> Support: 9-dot-problem  less likely to experience criterion failure = less likely to shift strategies - criterion failure
26
Limitations
- General problem solver better than humans at remembering what happened to a problem but worse at planning future moves (focuses on single move while humans can think several moves ahead) - Everyday problems are not well-defined like the ones they used - Approach best suited for multiple-move-problems not insight problems - De-emphasised individual differences in strategy & speed
27
Positive transfer -- (Analogical Problem Solving)
past experience helps - far transfer - positive transfer to a dissimilar context - near transfer - positive transfer to a similar context
28
Negative transfer -- (Analogical Problem Solving)
past experience disrupts ability to solve current problem
29
Three dimensions determining transfer distance -- (Analogical Problem Solving)
- task similarity - context similarity - time interval
30
Three main types of problem similarity -- (Analogical Problem Solving)
- Superficial similarity – solution irrelevant details (e.g. objects) - Structural similarity – causal relations among some main components - Procedural similarity – procedures for turning the solution principle into concrete operations
31
3 requirements for LTWM to function effectively
1. Person has extensive knowledge of relevant information 2. Activity must be very familiar so you can predict which info needs to be retrieved 3. Stored info must be associated with appropriate retrieval cues so that those cues actually lead to retrieval
32
Limitations -- Deliberate Practive
- Assumes there’s no such thing as innate talent (not plausible!) and practice is the only important factor (what about IQ?) - Disregards motivational factors - More applicable to narrow/ less complex skills (e.g. idiot savants) than broad/ complex skills
33
Brain parts for Insight
Right hemisphere - anterior superior temporal gyrus - Anterior cingulate cortex activated during cognitive conflict - DLPC -- more consistently activated during problem solving
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Generative cognition approach -- (MULTICULTURAL EXPERIENCE ENHANCES CREATIVITY)
actively retrieve and seek relevant info to generate candidate ideas with differing creative potential - conceptual expansion: seemingly irrelevant concepts are added to an existing one to expand conceptual boundaries
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Explorative processes -- (MULTICULTURAL EXPERIENCE ENHANCES CREATIVITY)
determine which ideas should be further processes
36
Design thinking
- Structured methodology for generating innovation - Demands that old assumptions & pre-existing beliefs are regarded thus unnatural & a challenge for the human brain - Have to focus on metacognition to notice when we’re slipping into cognitive traps
37
Structured methodology for generating innovation
1. Developing empathy & defining user needs 2. Ideation – explore possible solutions for improving user experience 3. Prototyping & testing
38
Top-Down Processing
- Leads to encoding failures (= disregarding of important details) - -> (solution): Enable bottom up processing through multiple observers/ observations
39
Inattentional Blindness
- Failure to see things in plain sight because attention is directed elsewhere (e.g. invisible gorilla) - -> (solution): Look for the unexpected to find surprises that can lead to breakthroughs
40
Confirmation Bias
- Dismiss data that contradicts prior beliefs | - -> (solution): Make a concentrated effort to capture evidence that challenges pre-existing beliefs
41
Fixation
- Inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective (= get stuck on ideas within a particular category)  become attached to a particular mental set (= framework of thinking about a problem based on past solutions, shaped by habit/ desire) - -> (solution): - Reframing of problem statements/ questions - Assuming alternative identities to generate social distance --> enhances abstract & divergent thinking - Imposing constraints in brainstorming (“brainstorming defibrillators”) - Remove power of social influence by writing down ideas prior to group session
42
Sunk Cost Trap
- Learning & adaption becomes constraint by heavy emotional investment in an initial idea - -> (solution): Parallel rather than serial prototyping even within a single idea
43
Attention allocation explanation
presence of examples should direct individuals to allocate their attention to example-related domains
44
Wallaces Gestalt theory
1. Preparation 2. Incubation 3. Illumination 4. Verification
45
Insight
involves sudden restructuring of a problem and is sometimes accompanied by the "ah-ha experience" -- it is "any sudden comprehension, realisation, or problem solution that involves a reorganisation of the elements of a person's mental representation of a stimulus, situation, or event to yield a non obvious or non dominant interpretation" --> subconsciously
46
Back tracing
keeping track of when and which assumptions were made (possibility to back up to to a certain point)
47
Types of paradigms
- reception paradigm | - production paradigm
48
Existing strategies
1. Expertise 2. Incubation 3. Past Experience 4. Analogical problem solving 5. Transfer 6. Insight
Complex Cognition
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