Test 4 Flashcards
(115 cards)
1
Q
What are sensory neurons?
A
afferent neurons - impulses to CNS
2
Q
what type of neurons are motor neurons? how do they send signals
A
efferent neurons - from CNS to tissue
3
Q
how to sensory receptors and motor effectors differ?
A
sensory receptors detect stimuli and motor effectors respond to stimulus
4
Q
What is the CNS comprised of?
A
Brain and spinal cord
5
Q
what is the PNS comprised of?
A
sensory and motor neurons
6
Q
what does the somatic ns stimulate?
A
skeletal muscle
7
Q
What does the autonomic ns stimulate?
A
smooth / cardiac muscle
8
Q
what is the sympathetic ns known as?
A
fight or flight
9
Q
what is the parasympathetic ns known as
A
rest and digest
10
Q
how do schwann and oligodendrocytes similar/different?
A
schwann and oligo both prouce myelin sheath
schwann - PNS
oligodendrocytes - CNS
11
Q
what is an astrocyte
A
cell that supports endothelial layer in blood-brain barrier
carry signals from blood stream to neurons
12
Q
what is microglia
A
phagocytic cell in the CNS - immune system of the CNS
13
Q
which end of the membrane is positive vs negative
A
cytoplasmic side = negative
extracellular side = positive pole
14
Q
resting potential value
A
-70 mV
15
Q
what happens at the sodium-potassium pump?
A
2 Potassium for every 3 Sodium
16
Q
what happens at the ion leakage channel
A
Potassium diffuses out at a faster rate than Sodium diffuses in
17
Q
what causes the resting membrane potential?
A
build up of positive charge outside vs negative charge inside
attractive for K+ ions
18
Q
what is a ligand?
A
hormone or neurotransmitter that change a cell’s permeability
19
Q
what is the sequence of an action potential?
A
voltage gated Na+ channels open
Na+ rushes in
Maximum voltage is reached
K+ channels open
Equilibrium is restored (refractory period)
20
Q
what is saltatory conduction
A
where impulses jump from node to node
21
Q
what is the synapse
A
where neurotransmitters are released from an axon to the dendrite
22
Q
how are neurotransmitters released
A
exocytosis
23
Q
what is the difference between presynaptic vs postsynaptic cell
A
pre = releases action potential / NT
post = receives action potential / NT
24
Q
what is the difference between electrical and chemical synapses?
A
electrical - direct cytoplasmic connections by gap junctions
chemical - synaptic cleft between cells
25
how do you characterize actin and myosin
actin = thin
myosin = thick
26
what is the excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) / why does it happen?
when ACh binds to postsynaptic membrane
stimulates muscle contraction
27
what degrades ACh? what happens psychologically?
acetylcholinesterase (AChE)
muscle relaxation
28
what is glutamate?
excitatory NT in CNS
29
what are glycine and GABA
what channels are opened / what event results
inhibitory NT
Open ligand gated Cl- channels
causing hyperpolarization (very negative potential)
30
what is the inhibitory postsynaptic potential
a cellular hyperpolarization induced by GABA or Glycine
31
what are the adrenal hormones?
epinephrine
norepinephrine
32
what is dopamine used in the brain for?
areas that control body movements
33
what is serotonin used for?
regulation of sleep
34
what is substance P
NT released from sensory neurons activated by painful stimuli
35
what controls the intensity of pain?
enkephalins
endorphins
36
what does NO do/ what is it ?
a gas produced from arginine
causes smooth muscle relaxation
37
what is spatial summation
many dendrites producing excitatory postsynaptic potentials that add up to an action potential
38
what is temporal summation
one dendrite producing repeated excitatory postsynaptic potentials until AP is met
39
what is habituation
decreased sensitivity / number of receptors available due to an abundance of NT
40
what are reflex tests used for?
ensuring that the periphreal and central NS are in unison
41
what makes up the periphreal nervous system / what are they?
nerves - bundles of axons w connective tissue
Ganglia - aggregates of neuron cell bodies
42
as agonist is excited the antagonist is...
inhibited by hyperpolarization of spinal motor neurons
43
what does the medulla oblongata control
heart rate, thermoregulation , everyday functions
44
in what phylum was the digestive tract introduced
cnidarians (hydra)
45
what is salivary amylase?
enzyme released that breaks down sugars and carbohydrates
46
what is protease?
enzyme released that breaks down proteins
47
does absoprtion occur in the stomach?
no, instead enzymes are poured on chyme to break it down as much as possible
48
how do ruminants' digestive tract differ from humans
ruminants have multiple chambered stomach
microbiome digest cellulose and bind it to cecum
49
what does bile do?
emulsifies lipids
50
what is the order from inner-outermost of the gastrointestinal tract
mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, serosa
51
incisors vs canines vs pre and molars
incisors - cut
canines - tear
premolar / molar - grind
52
what is peristalsis
rhythmic waves of muscular contractions
53
what do parietal cells release
hydrochloric acid
54
what do cheif cells secrete
pepsinogen (protease that digests proteins)
55
what is the pH of the stomach
1.5-3.5
56
what is chyme
mixture of partially digested food and gastric juice
57
how is the small intestine divided up
duodenum, jejunum, ileum
58
what does secretin do
induces pancreas to release bicarbonate to neutralize stomach acid
59
what happens in the duodenum
dumping of bile and gastric secretions
60
what do villi/microvilli do?
increase surface area for digestion
each has vascular system for nutrients
61
how does absorption occur in small intestine
amino acids and monosaccharides are transported across brush border into epithelial cells
nutrients into capillaries
products to liver
fats hydrolyzed and absorbed by epithelial cells
62
what are the accessory organs
pancreas, liver, and gallbladder
63
what organ releases insulin
pancreas / controlled by endocrine system
64
where does bile get stored / what secretes bile?
gall bladder and liver
65
What is type 1 diabetes
body will not produce insulin / body will not take up glucose
in kids it is an autoimmune issue
66
what is type 2 diabetes
pancreas makes insulin but body cannot absorb it
downregulated receptors will not absorb glucose
67
what does gastrin do
upregulates receptors
begins chief and parietal cells secretions
bile is dumped into small intestine
68
what is the endocrine system
all the organs and tissues tha produce hormones
69
how do endocrine differ from exocrine glands
endo - secrete into the blood
exo - secrete into duct
70
what are lipophilic hormones
fat soluble hormones made of cholesterol that penetrate the membrane and bind to intracellular receptors
71
what are hydrophilic polar hormones
water soluble hormones that bind to extracellular receptors
72
what is the master endocrine gland
pituitary gland
73
what does the pituitary gland hang from
the hypothalamus
74
how does the anterior vs posterior pituitary look
ant - glandular
post - fibrous
75
what does thyroid stimulating hormone make
T3 / T4
76
what are the reproductive hormones?
luteinizing and follicle stimulating
77
what does negative feedback do
inhibit a hormones production and decreases the receptors sensitivity
78
what is an example of positive feedback? how does it differ?
release of oxytocin / positive feedback loops increase the production of a hormone
79
what does growth hormone do? what does it promote?
growth of muscles and connective tissue
insulin like growth factor
80
what are IGFs
hormones that stimulate cell division in the epiphyseal plate - bone elongation
81
what are the three types of skeleton
hydrostatic
endo
exo
82
what are the two parts of the endoskeleton
axial - head, neck, and trunk
appendicular - everything else
83
what does the endoskeleton allow for
bones to grow larger / grow to the size of the organism
84
what is bone comprised of?
collagen fibers full of hydroxyapatite crystals
85
what cells form bone?
osteoblasts
86
largest and smallest muscle
gluteus maximus - hip extension
stapedius - bangs stapes against tympanic membrane
87
role of skeletal muscle
movement through contraction
maintain posture
produce heat
protects internal structures
88
how does origin differ from insertion
origin - where muscle starts
insertion - where muscle binds to bone through tendons
89
how do isometric differ from isotonic?
isometric - muscle contracts but does not shorten
isotonic - concentric vs eccentric
90
how does a muscle contract
Ca+ released by sarcoplasmic reticulum thanks to ACh signaling
91
where is Ca+ held
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
92
what is a motor unit
set of muscle fibers that are stimulated by a given motor neuron
93
what are the three layers of immune respone
integumentary system
innate cells
adaptive cells
94
what is the difference between innate and adaptive immune system
innate - not antigen specific
adaptive - antigen specific
95
what are the antigen specific lymphocytes
helper t cell
cytotoxic t cell
b cell
plasma cell
96
what are the three granulocytes
neutrophil
basophil
eosinophil
97
what are the two innate cells
natural killer / monocytes
98
what do natural killer cells do
what do mast cells do
destroy infected cells
release histamine
99
what are macarophages
irregularly shaped cells that kill microbes by phagocytosis
100
how were vaccinations introduced
small pox
those who had cowpox were immune to small pox, people would be injected with fluid from cowpox vesicles to protect from small pox
101
what are the four characteristics of adaptive response
specificity
diversity
memory
ability to self distinguish
102
what is an antigen
a molecule that provokes a specific immune response
103
what are the primary lymphoid organs
bone marrow and thymus
104
what are secondary lymphoid organs
lymph nodes, spleen and mucosal associate lymphoid tissue
105
What are the types of T lympcytes
cytotoxic t-cells = CD8+
helper t-cells = CD4+
106
what is immune tolerance
acceptance of self cells
107
what is autoimmune disease
failure of immune tolerance
108
what is systemic anaphylaxis / local anaphylaxis / anaphylactic shock
systemic - severe / potentially life-threatening allergic reaction
local = hives or mild asthma
anaphylactic - pressure drop and bronchial constriction
109
what are the three parts of sperm
nuclear head
body - mitochondria
flagella tail
110
why is female gametogenesis different
enter meiosis and arrest in meiosis
111
why is female gametogenesis different
enter meiosis and arrest in meiosis 1 as haploid primary oocytes
during ovarian cycle, oocyte completes meiosis and release a haploid egg
112
what is zona pellucida
cell wall that becomes firm after sperm enters the egg
113
how is hemolytic anemia developed
in a mothers first pregnancy the fetus detaches from uterine wall and the blood of the fetus mixes with the mother
114
up until day ___ all vertebrate embryos grow the same way
40
115
what two hormones increase when birth begins
estirol / progesterone
positive feedback - oxytocin
