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BIO 202 > Test 4 > Flashcards

Test 4 Flashcards

1
Q

What are sensory neurons?

A

afferent neurons - impulses to CNS

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2
Q

what type of neurons are motor neurons? how do they send signals

A

efferent neurons - from CNS to tissue

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3
Q

how to sensory receptors and motor effectors differ?

A

sensory receptors detect stimuli and motor effectors respond to stimulus

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4
Q

What is the CNS comprised of?

A

Brain and spinal cord

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5
Q

what is the PNS comprised of?

A

sensory and motor neurons

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6
Q

what does the somatic ns stimulate?

A

skeletal muscle

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7
Q

What does the autonomic ns stimulate?

A

smooth / cardiac muscle

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8
Q

what is the sympathetic ns known as?

A

fight or flight

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9
Q

what is the parasympathetic ns known as

A

rest and digest

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10
Q

how do schwann and oligodendrocytes similar/different?

A

schwann and oligo both prouce myelin sheath

schwann - PNS
oligodendrocytes - CNS

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11
Q

what is an astrocyte

A

cell that supports endothelial layer in blood-brain barrier
carry signals from blood stream to neurons

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12
Q

what is microglia

A

phagocytic cell in the CNS - immune system of the CNS

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13
Q

which end of the membrane is positive vs negative

A

cytoplasmic side = negative
extracellular side = positive pole

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14
Q

resting potential value

A

-70 mV

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15
Q

what happens at the sodium-potassium pump?

A

2 Potassium for every 3 Sodium

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16
Q

what happens at the ion leakage channel

A

Potassium diffuses out at a faster rate than Sodium diffuses in

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17
Q

what causes the resting membrane potential?

A

build up of positive charge outside vs negative charge inside

attractive for K+ ions

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18
Q

what is a ligand?

A

hormone or neurotransmitter that change a cell’s permeability

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19
Q

what is the sequence of an action potential?

A

voltage gated Na+ channels open
Na+ rushes in
Maximum voltage is reached
K+ channels open
Equilibrium is restored (refractory period)

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20
Q

what is saltatory conduction

A

where impulses jump from node to node

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21
Q

what is the synapse

A

where neurotransmitters are released from an axon to the dendrite

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22
Q

how are neurotransmitters released

A

exocytosis

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23
Q

what is the difference between presynaptic vs postsynaptic cell

A

pre = releases action potential / NT
post = receives action potential / NT

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24
Q

what is the difference between electrical and chemical synapses?

A

electrical - direct cytoplasmic connections by gap junctions

chemical - synaptic cleft between cells

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25
Q

how do you characterize actin and myosin

A

actin = thin
myosin = thick

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26
Q

what is the excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) / why does it happen?

A

when ACh binds to postsynaptic membrane
stimulates muscle contraction

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27
Q

what degrades ACh? what happens psychologically?

A

acetylcholinesterase (AChE)
muscle relaxation

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28
Q

what is glutamate?

A

excitatory NT in CNS

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29
Q

what are glycine and GABA
what channels are opened / what event results

A

inhibitory NT
Open ligand gated Cl- channels
causing hyperpolarization (very negative potential)

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30
Q

what is the inhibitory postsynaptic potential

A

a cellular hyperpolarization induced by GABA or Glycine

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31
Q

what are the adrenal hormones?

A

epinephrine
norepinephrine

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32
Q

what is dopamine used in the brain for?

A

areas that control body movements

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33
Q

what is serotonin used for?

A

regulation of sleep

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34
Q

what is substance P

A

NT released from sensory neurons activated by painful stimuli

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35
Q

what controls the intensity of pain?

A

enkephalins
endorphins

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36
Q

what does NO do/ what is it ?

A

a gas produced from arginine
causes smooth muscle relaxation

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37
Q

what is spatial summation

A

many dendrites producing excitatory postsynaptic potentials that add up to an action potential

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38
Q

what is temporal summation

A

one dendrite producing repeated excitatory postsynaptic potentials until AP is met

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39
Q

what is habituation

A

decreased sensitivity / number of receptors available due to an abundance of NT

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40
Q

what are reflex tests used for?

A

ensuring that the periphreal and central NS are in unison

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41
Q

what makes up the periphreal nervous system / what are they?

A

nerves - bundles of axons w connective tissue
Ganglia - aggregates of neuron cell bodies

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42
Q

as agonist is excited the antagonist is…

A

inhibited by hyperpolarization of spinal motor neurons

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43
Q

what does the medulla oblongata control

A

heart rate, thermoregulation , everyday functions

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44
Q

in what phylum was the digestive tract introduced

A

cnidarians (hydra)

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45
Q

what is salivary amylase?

A

enzyme released that breaks down sugars and carbohydrates

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46
Q

what is protease?

A

enzyme released that breaks down proteins

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47
Q

does absoprtion occur in the stomach?

A

no, instead enzymes are poured on chyme to break it down as much as possible

48
Q

how do ruminants’ digestive tract differ from humans

A

ruminants have multiple chambered stomach
microbiome digest cellulose and bind it to cecum

49
Q

what does bile do?

A

emulsifies lipids

50
Q

what is the order from inner-outermost of the gastrointestinal tract

A

mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, serosa

51
Q

incisors vs canines vs pre and molars

A

incisors - cut
canines - tear
premolar / molar - grind

52
Q

what is peristalsis

A

rhythmic waves of muscular contractions

53
Q

what do parietal cells release

A

hydrochloric acid

54
Q

what do cheif cells secrete

A

pepsinogen (protease that digests proteins)

55
Q

what is the pH of the stomach

A

1.5-3.5

56
Q

what is chyme

A

mixture of partially digested food and gastric juice

57
Q

how is the small intestine divided up

A

duodenum, jejunum, ileum

58
Q

what does secretin do

A

induces pancreas to release bicarbonate to neutralize stomach acid

59
Q

what happens in the duodenum

A

dumping of bile and gastric secretions

60
Q

what do villi/microvilli do?

A

increase surface area for digestion
each has vascular system for nutrients

61
Q

how does absorption occur in small intestine

A

amino acids and monosaccharides are transported across brush border into epithelial cells
nutrients into capillaries
products to liver
fats hydrolyzed and absorbed by epithelial cells

62
Q

what are the accessory organs

A

pancreas, liver, and gallbladder

63
Q

what organ releases insulin

A

pancreas / controlled by endocrine system

64
Q

where does bile get stored / what secretes bile?

A

gall bladder and liver

65
Q

What is type 1 diabetes

A

body will not produce insulin / body will not take up glucose
in kids it is an autoimmune issue

66
Q

what is type 2 diabetes

A

pancreas makes insulin but body cannot absorb it
downregulated receptors will not absorb glucose

67
Q

what does gastrin do

A

upregulates receptors
begins chief and parietal cells secretions
bile is dumped into small intestine

68
Q

what is the endocrine system

A

all the organs and tissues tha produce hormones

69
Q

how do endocrine differ from exocrine glands

A

endo - secrete into the blood
exo - secrete into duct

70
Q

what are lipophilic hormones

A

fat soluble hormones made of cholesterol that penetrate the membrane and bind to intracellular receptors

71
Q

what are hydrophilic polar hormones

A

water soluble hormones that bind to extracellular receptors

72
Q

what is the master endocrine gland

A

pituitary gland

73
Q

what does the pituitary gland hang from

A

the hypothalamus

74
Q

how does the anterior vs posterior pituitary look

A

ant - glandular
post - fibrous

75
Q

what does thyroid stimulating hormone make

A

T3 / T4

76
Q

what are the reproductive hormones?

A

luteinizing and follicle stimulating

77
Q

what does negative feedback do

A

inhibit a hormones production and decreases the receptors sensitivity

78
Q

what is an example of positive feedback? how does it differ?

A

release of oxytocin / positive feedback loops increase the production of a hormone

79
Q

what does growth hormone do? what does it promote?

A

growth of muscles and connective tissue
insulin like growth factor

80
Q

what are IGFs

A

hormones that stimulate cell division in the epiphyseal plate - bone elongation

81
Q

what are the three types of skeleton

A

hydrostatic
endo
exo

82
Q

what are the two parts of the endoskeleton

A

axial - head, neck, and trunk
appendicular - everything else

83
Q

what does the endoskeleton allow for

A

bones to grow larger / grow to the size of the organism

84
Q

what is bone comprised of?

A

collagen fibers full of hydroxyapatite crystals

85
Q

what cells form bone?

A

osteoblasts

86
Q

largest and smallest muscle

A

gluteus maximus - hip extension
stapedius - bangs stapes against tympanic membrane

87
Q

role of skeletal muscle

A

movement through contraction
maintain posture
produce heat
protects internal structures

88
Q

how does origin differ from insertion

A

origin - where muscle starts
insertion - where muscle binds to bone through tendons

89
Q

how do isometric differ from isotonic?

A

isometric - muscle contracts but does not shorten
isotonic - concentric vs eccentric

90
Q

how does a muscle contract

A

Ca+ released by sarcoplasmic reticulum thanks to ACh signaling

91
Q

where is Ca+ held

A

smooth endoplasmic reticulum

92
Q

what is a motor unit

A

set of muscle fibers that are stimulated by a given motor neuron

93
Q

what are the three layers of immune respone

A

integumentary system
innate cells
adaptive cells

94
Q

what is the difference between innate and adaptive immune system

A

innate - not antigen specific
adaptive - antigen specific

95
Q

what are the antigen specific lymphocytes

A

helper t cell
cytotoxic t cell
b cell
plasma cell

96
Q

what are the three granulocytes

A

neutrophil
basophil
eosinophil

97
Q

what are the two innate cells

A

natural killer / monocytes

98
Q

what do natural killer cells do
what do mast cells do

A

destroy infected cells
release histamine

99
Q

what are macarophages

A

irregularly shaped cells that kill microbes by phagocytosis

100
Q

how were vaccinations introduced

A

small pox
those who had cowpox were immune to small pox, people would be injected with fluid from cowpox vesicles to protect from small pox

101
Q

what are the four characteristics of adaptive response

A

specificity
diversity
memory
ability to self distinguish

102
Q

what is an antigen

A

a molecule that provokes a specific immune response

103
Q

what are the primary lymphoid organs

A

bone marrow and thymus

104
Q

what are secondary lymphoid organs

A

lymph nodes, spleen and mucosal associate lymphoid tissue

105
Q

What are the types of T lympcytes

A

cytotoxic t-cells = CD8+
helper t-cells = CD4+

106
Q

what is immune tolerance

A

acceptance of self cells

107
Q

what is autoimmune disease

A

failure of immune tolerance

108
Q

what is systemic anaphylaxis / local anaphylaxis / anaphylactic shock

A

systemic - severe / potentially life-threatening allergic reaction

local = hives or mild asthma

anaphylactic - pressure drop and bronchial constriction

109
Q

what are the three parts of sperm

A

nuclear head
body - mitochondria
flagella tail

110
Q

why is female gametogenesis different

A

enter meiosis and arrest in meiosis

111
Q

why is female gametogenesis different

A

enter meiosis and arrest in meiosis 1 as haploid primary oocytes
during ovarian cycle, oocyte completes meiosis and release a haploid egg

112
Q

what is zona pellucida

A

cell wall that becomes firm after sperm enters the egg

113
Q

how is hemolytic anemia developed

A

in a mothers first pregnancy the fetus detaches from uterine wall and the blood of the fetus mixes with the mother

114
Q

up until day ___ all vertebrate embryos grow the same way

A

40

115
Q

what two hormones increase when birth begins

A

estirol / progesterone
positive feedback - oxytocin

BIO 202 (7 decks)

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