Topic 2: Memory Flashcards
(130 cards)
1
Q
What is short term memory?
A
A limited capacity memory store where coding is mainly acoustic, capacity is between 5 and 9 items is duration is 18s seconds.
2
Q
What is long term memory?
A
The permanent memory store where coding is mainly semantic, capacity is unlimited and can store memories for up to a lifetime.
3
Q
What is coding?
A
The formation in which infomation is stored in a memory store.
4
Q
What is capacity?
A
The amount of infomation that can be held in a memory store.
5
Q
What is duration?
A
The length of time infomation can be held in memory.
6
Q
How did Baddeley carry out his investigation?
A
He gave different lists of words to 4 groups.
Group 1: Acoustically similar
Group 2: Acoustically dissimilar
Group 3: Semantically similar
Group 4: Semantically dissimilar
had to recall in correct order immediately and after 20mins.
7
Q
What were the findings of Baddely’s study?
A
When recalling from STM recall was worse with acoustically similar words and when recalling from LTM recall was worse with semantically similar words.
8
Q
What could Baddeley conclude from his study?
A
STM is coded in acoustically and LTM is coded semantically.
9
Q
What is a strength of Baddeley’s study? (Seperate memory stores)
A
Later research showed exceptions to Baddeley’s findings but idea of STM being acoustic and LTM being semantic has stood the test of time. Led to development of the multi store model.
10
Q
What is a limitation of Baddeley’s study? (Artificial stimuli)
A
Word lists have no personal meaning to the participants so findings may not tell us much about coding in different kinds of memory tasks especially in everyday life. When processing more meaningful info people may use semantic coding even for STM tasks. Findings have a limited application.
11
Q
How did Jacobs carry out his investigation?
A
Researcher reads out 4 digits and particpant has to recall in correct order, number increases in digits until order can no longer be recalled correctly. This is the individuals digit span.
12
Q
What were the findings of Jacobs’ investigation?
A
Mean digit span in 9.3 and mean span for letters is 7.3.
13
Q
What is a strength of Jacobs’ study? (A valid study)
A
More recent replications that are better controlled by Bopp and Verhaeghen have confirmed Jacob’s study. The study is a valid test of digit span in STM.
14
Q
How did Miller carry out his investigation?
A
Made observations of everyday practise. Noted that lots of things come in sevens.
15
Q
What were the findings of Miller’s study?
A
Span of STM is about 7 items plus or minus 2. People can recall 5 words as well as 5 letters by chunking.
16
Q
What is a limitation of Miller’s study? (Not so many chunks)
A
Miller may have overestimated STM capacity. Cowan reviewed research and said that capacity of STM is about 4 plus or minus 1 chunks. Lower end of Miller’s estimate is more appropriate than the upper.
17
Q
How did Peterson and Peterson carry out their investigation?
A
Tested 24 students in 8 trials each. In each trial the student was given a consonant syllable to remember and a 2 digit number to count back from for a varying number of seconds (3,6,9,12,15,18) The retention interval.
18
Q
What were the findings of Peterson and Peterson’s study?
A
After 3 seconds average recall was 80% and after 18 seconds it was about 3%.
19
Q
What could Peterson and Peterson conclude from their study?
A
STM duration may be about 18 seconds unless we repeat infomation over and over again.
20
Q
What is a limitation of Peterson and Peterson’s study? (Meaningless stimuli in STM study)
A
Sometimes we do try to remember meaningless material like phone numbers, however recalling consonant syllables does not reflect most everyday memory activities where what we are trying to remember is meaningful. Lacks external validity.
21
Q
How did Bahrick carry out his investigation?
A
392 American participants between 17-74. With highschool year books there was a photo recognition test and a free recall test.
22
Q
What were the findings of Bahrick’s study?
A
Participant’s tested within 15 years of graduation were about 90% accurate in photo recognition and 60% in free recall. After 48 years it was 70% for photo recognition and 30% for free recall. Shows that some material in LTM may last up to a lifetime.
23
Q
What is a strength of Bahrick’s study? (High external validity)
A
Researchers investigated meaningfull memories, when studies on LTM were conducted with meaningless pictures recall rates were lower-Shepard. Reflect a more real estimate of duration of LTM.
24
Q
What is the multi store modle of memory?
A
Representation of how memory works in terms of 3 stores called the sensory register, short term memory and long term memory which are linked by processing. Describes how infomation flows through the memory system.
25
Who proposed the multi store model of memory?
Atkinson and Shiffrin
26
What is the sensory register?
The memory stores for each of our 5 senses. Coding in each store is modality specific. Compromises several registers one for each sense
27
What is the store coding for visual infomation?
Iconic
28
What is the store coding for echoic infomation?
Acoustic
29
What is the duration of the sensory register?
Less than half a second
30
What is the capacity of the sensory register?
Very high
31
What allows infomation to pass from the sensory register deeper into the memory system?
If you pay attention to it.
32
How can infomation pass from the short term memory into the long term memory?
Prolonged rehearsal.
33
What is maintenance rehearsal?
When we repeat material to ourselves over and over so it stays in STM.
34
What is the process that causes infomation to move from the long term to short term memory?
Retreival.
35
What is a strength of the multi store model of memory? (research support)
There is support from studies showing that STM and LTM are different. Baddeley found we tend to mix up words that sound similar when we used our STM but we mix up words with similar meanings when we use LTM. Further support from studies on capacity and duration. Shows STM and LTM are independent and seperate memory stores as claimed by MSM.
36
What is a limitation of the multi store model of memory? (Research support)
Many of the studies supporting the MSM do not use everyday materials which are not meaningful. MSM may not be a valid model of how memory works in everyday life.
37
What is a limitation of the multi store model of memory? (More then 1 STM store)
There is evidence of more than 1 STM store. Shallice and Warrington studied KF who had amnesia. His STM for digits was very poor when read aloud but was much better when he read them himself. Further studies show there could also be a short term store for non verbal sounds. Suggests the MSM is wrong in claiming there is just one STM store processing different types of info.
38
What is a limitation of the multi store model of memory? (Elaborative rehearsal)
Prolonged rehearsal is not needed for transfer to LTM. Prolonged rehearsal describes that the more you rehearse something its more likely to transfer to LTM. Craik and Watkins found that elaborative rehearsal is more important for long term storage. This is when you link the info to existing knowledge or think about what it means. MSM does not fully explain how long term storage is acheived.
39
What is the extra evaluation point for the multi store model of memory? (Bygone model)
Model is based of evidence available at the time that showed STM and LTM to be seperate memory stores. Now a lot of research to show there is more than one type of both LTM and STM and more than 1 type of rehearsal. MSM is an oversimplified model of memory.
40
Who proposed the idea of the 3 types of long term memory?
Tulving
41
What is episodic memory?
Store for personal events in our lives. Likened to a diary of our daily experiences, they are timestamped. You have to make a conscious effort to recall these memories. memories of people, objects and behaviours are interwoven to produce a single memory.
42
What is semantic memory?
Store for our knowledge of the world. Likened to a combination of a dictionary and encyclopedia. Includes facts and what words and concepts mean. Also need a conscious effort to retreive but is less vulnerable to distortion or forgetting.
43
What is procedural memory?
Store for our knowledge of how to do things like actions or skills. Don't take conscious effort to recall.
44
What is a strength of the 3 types of long term memory? (Clinical evidence)
Both HM and CW had damaged episodic memories but their semantic and procedural memories were intact. Supports tulvings view that there are different stores in LTM.
45
What is a limitation of the 3 types of long term memory? (Clinical evidence)
Clinical studies lack control of variables as the researcher cannot control what happened before or during the accident that led to brain damage. So hard to judge how much worse memory is afterwards. So limits of what clinical studies can tell us about types of LTM.
46
What is a limitation of the 3 types of long term memory? (Conflicting neuroimaging evidence)
Conflicting research evidence linking types of LTM to different parts of the brain. Buckner and Peterson say that semantic memory is on the left prefrontal cortex and episodic on the right. But Tulving's research links the left prefrontal cortex with encoding of episodic memories and retreival on the right. Challenges any neurophysioilogical evidence to support types of memory as there is conflict over where each type is located.
47
What is a strength of the 3 types of long term memory? (Real world application)
Understandings types of LTM allow psychologists to help people with memory problems. As people age their episodic memory tends to worsen. Belleville devised an intervention to improve episodic memory in old people. Trained participants did better on a test of episodic memory after training than a control group. Distinguising between types of LTM enables specific treatments to be developed.
48
What is the extra evaluation point for the 3 types of long term memory? (Same or diiferent?)
Tulving has suggested that episodic memory is a specialised subcategory of semantic memory. Some people with amnesia have a functioning semantic memory alongside a damaged episodic memory, but he also concluded that its not possible to have a functioning episodic memory with a damaged semantic memory. However, Hodges and Patterson found that people with alzheimers could form new episodic memories but not semantic memories.
49
Who proposed the working memory model?
Baddeley and Hitch
50
What is the working memory model?
A representation of the short term memory. Suggests that the short term memory is a dynamic processor of different types of infomation using subunits coordinated by a centra decision making system.
51
What is the central executive?
Has a supervisory role, it monitors incoming data, focueses and divides our limited attention and allocates our subsystems to tasks. Has very limited processing capacity and does not store infomation.
52
What is the phonological loop?
Deals with auditory infomation.
53
What is the coding of the phonological loop?
Acoustic
54
What is the phonological loop subdivided into?
The phonological store- Stores the words you hear
Articulatory process- allows maintenance rehearsal
55
What is the capacity of the phonological loop?
2 seconds worth of what you can say
56
What is the visuo spatial sketchpad?
Processes visual and spatial infomation.
57
What is the coding in the visuo spatial sketchpad?
Visual
58
What is the capacity of the visuo spatial sketchpad?
3 or 4 objects
59
What is the visuo spatial sketchpad divided into?
The visual cache- stores visual data
The inner scribe- records object arrangment in the visual field.
60
What is the episodic buffer?
A temporary store for infomation. It integrates the visual, spatial and verbal infomation and maintains a sense of time sequencing. It links working memory to long term memory and other wider cognitive processes
61
What is the capacity of the episodic buffer?
About 4 chunks
62
What is a strength of the working memory model? (Clinical evidence)
There is support from Shallice and Warrington's case study on KF. After his brain injury KF had poor STM ability for auditory infomation but could easily process visual infomtion. His phonological loop was damaged but not his visuo spatial sketchpad. Supports the existence of seperate visual and acoustic memory stores.
63
What is a limitation of the working memory model? (Clinical evidence)
It was unclear whether KF had any other cognitive impairments which might have affected his performance on memory tasks, e.g the trauma from his accident may have affected his cognitive performance that had nothing to do with his brain injury. Challenges evidence from clinical studies of brain injuries that may have affected many different systems.
64
What is a strength of the working memory model? (Dual task performance)
Studies of dual task performance support the seperate existence of the visuo spatial sketchpad. When Baddeley's participants carried out a visual task and a verbal task at the same time their performance on each was similar to when they carried them out separately. But when boths tasks were verbal or visual performance on both declined. As 2 visual or verbal tasks compete for the same subsystem. Shows there must be a separate subsystem for processing visual input and verbal input.
65
What is a limitation of the working memory model? (Nature of the central executive)
Lack of clarity over nature of the central exectutive. It is the most important but least understood component. Needs to be morel clearly specified than just being simply attention, e.g some people think its made of separate subsystems. Means the CE is unsatisfactory component which challenges the integrity of the model.
66
What is the extra evaluation point for the working memory model? (Validity of the model)
Dual task studies support the WMM. However these tasks are very unlike tasks we perform in everyday lives and are carried out in highly controlled labs.
67
What is interference theory?
Forgetting becuase one memory blocks another causing one or both to be forgotton or distorted.
68
What is proactive interference?
Occurs when an older memory interferes with a newer one disrupting the recall of the newer memory.
69
What is retroactive interference?
Occurs when a newer memory interferes with an older one disrupting the recall of the older one.
70
What was Mcdonald and Mcgeogh's research into interference?
Participants had to learn a list of 10 words until they could remember them with 100% accuracy. They then learned a new list. 6 groups of participants had to learn different types of new list. synonyms,antonyms,unrelated words,consonant syllables,3 digit numbers, and no new list.
71
What were the findings and conclusions of Mcdonald and Mcgeoch's study?
When participants were asked to recall the original list again, the synonyms produced the worst recall. Shows interference is stronger when memories are similar. About 1.3 words recalled with synonyms but with the control group, 4.5 words recalled
72
Why does similarity affect recall?
- Due to PI- previously sotred info makes new similar info harder to store
- Due to RI- New info overwrites previous similar info due to their similarity.
73
What is a strength of interference theory? (Real world interference)
There is evidence of interference effects in everyday situations. Baddeley and Hitch asked rugby players to recall the names of all the teams they played in a season. All players played for the same time interval but number of games varied. Players who played the most games had poorest recall. Shows interference can operate in at least some real world situations increasing the validity of the theory.
74
What is a limitation of interference theory? (Real world interference)
Interference may cause some forgetting in everyday situations but it is unusual. This is becuase the conditions needed for interference to occur are quite rare, hard to have 2 memories that are so similar. Most forgetting may be better explained by otehrs theories.
75
What is a limitation of interference theory? (Interference and cues)
Interference can be overcome using cues. Tulving and Psotka gave participants lists of words organsied into categories one list at a time. Recall averaged about 70% for the first list but got worse as they learned each list(PI) They were then given a cued recall test and recall rose again to 70%. Shows interference causes a temporary loss of acessibilitiy to material in the LTM which is not predicted by the theory.
76
What is a strength of interference theory? (Support from drug studies)
Evidence of retrograde facilitation. Coenen and Luijitelaar gave participants lists of words and later asked them to to recall them. When words were learned under the influence of the drug diazepam recall a weel later was poor compared to a placebo control group. When list was learned before the drug was taken later recall was better than placebo. So the drug improved the recall of material learned beforehand. Wixted suggested that the drug prevenst new info reaching parts of the brain involved in processing memories so can;'t interfere retroactively with info already stored. Shows forgetting can be due to interference.
77
What is the extra evaluation point for interference? (Validity issues)
High control over confounding variables but use unrealistic materials and artificial procedures.
78
What is retreival failure?
Occurs when we don't have the necessary cues to access memory, that memory is available but not accessible unless a suitable cue is provided.
79
What is Tulving's encoding specificity principle?
A cue must be present both at encoding and at retreival for forgetting not to occur
80
What is context dependent forgetting?
Recall depends on external cues e.g the weather
81
What is a state dependent forgetting?
Recall depends on internal cue e.g degreeof drunkness
82
What was Godden and Baddeley's research into context dependent forgetting?
Divers learned a list of words either underwater or on land and then recalled them either underwater or on land. This created 4 different conditions.
83
What were the findings and conlusions of Godden and Baddely's study?
Accurate recall was 40% lower in the 2 non matching conditons. They concluded that the external cues available at learning were different to the ones available at recall and this led to retreival failure.
84
What was Carter and Cassaday's research on state dependent forgetting?
Gave antihistamine drugs to participants which had a mild sedative effect creating an internal physiological state different from the normal state. Participants had to learn lists of words then recall creating 4 conditions.
85
What were the findings of Carter and Cassaday's study?
In the conditons where there was a mismatch between internal state at learning and recall, performance on the memory test was significantly worse. So when cues are absent there is more forgetting.
86
What is a strength of retreival failure? (Real world application)
Cues can help overcome some forgetting in everyday life. Although cues may not have a very strong effect on forgetting, Baddeley says they are still worth paying attention to. e.g when we are in 1 room and go into another to get something but forget what we needed but then remember when we go back to the original room. When we struggle to remember something, it is probbaly worth remembering the environment in which we learned it first. Shows us how research can remind us of strategies used in the real word to help recall.
87
What is a strength of retreival failure? (Research support)
There is lots of research to support this explanation like Godden and Baddeley and Carter and Cassaday's studies. Eysenck and Keane argue that retreival failure is the main reason for forgetting from LTM. Evidence shows that retreival failure occurs in real world situations as well as in labs.
88
What is a limitation of retreival failure? (Research support)
Baddeley says that conext effects are not strong in everyday life. Different contexts have to be very different for an effect to be seen. e.g hard to find an environment as different from land as underwater Hard to find 2 places that are so different. Retreival failure due to lack of contextual cues may not explain much everyday forgetting.
89
What is a limitation of retreival failure? (Recall vs recognition)
Context effects may depend on type of memory being tested. Godden and Baddeley replicated their experiement but used a recognition test. There was no context dependent effect, performance was the same in all conditions. Retreival failure is a limited explantion as only applies on type of memory being tested.
90
What is the extra evaluation point for retreival failure? (Problems with the ESP)
Evidence that forgetting takes place with a mismatch of cues however it is not independently possible to see whether a cue has been encoded or not, its based on assumption. If a cue did not produce recall we assume it can't have been encoded and if it did produce recall we assume it did encode.
91
What is eyewitness testimony?
The ability for an eyewitness to recall details of events like a crime which they have observed.
92
What is misleading infomation?
Incorrect info given to an eyewitness after an event.
93
What is a leading question?
A question in which the way it is phrased, directs you towards a particular answer.
94
What was Loftus and Palmer's study into leading questions?
45 participants watched a films of car accidents. In the critical question they were asked About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other? 5 groups and each group got a different verb: hit,contacted,bumped,collided,smashed
95
What were the findings of Loftus and Palmer's study?
The mean estimated speed was calculated for each group. Contacted resulted in estimated spped of 31.8mph and smashed was 40.5mph. The leading question biased the recall of the event.
96
What is the response bias explanation?
Wording of the question has no real effect on the participants memories but just influences how they decide to answer. When participants get a question with the verb smashed, this encourages them to choose a higher speed.
97
What is the substitution explanation?
Wording of the question does alter participants memory of the film clip. Shown in a second experiment where participants who had heard smashed were more likely to report seeing broken glass tha those who heard hit. The critical verb altered the memory.
98
What is post event discussion?
Witnesses may discuss what they have seen with co witnesses, this may influence the accuracy of each persons recall of the event.
99
What was Gabbert's study to investigate post event discussion?
Studied participants in pairs. Each pair watched a video of the same crime but from different points of view. They then discussed what they saw then completed an independent test of recall.
100
What were the findings of Gabbert's study?
71% mistakenly recalled aspects of the event they did not see in the video but had picked up in discussion. Corresponding figure in a control group with no discussion was 0%, evidence of memory conformity.
101
What is memory contamination?
When co witnesses discuess what they saw, their eye witness testimonies may become altered or distorted as they combine their own info with other peoples.
102
What is memory conformity?
Witnesses often go along with each other either to gain social approval or they think otehrs are right. The actual memory is unchanged.
103
What is a strength of misleading infomation? (Real world application)
Important practical uses in the criminal justice system. Leading Q's can have such a distorting effect on memory that police officers need to be careful about how to phrase their questions when interviewing eyewitness. Psychologists are sometimes asked to act as expert witnesses in trials and explain the limits of EWT to juries. Psychologists can help improve the way the legal system works especially by protecting innocent people from faulty convictions based on unreliabel EWT.
104
What is a limitation of misleading infomation? (Real world application)
Practical applications might be affected by issues with research. watching films is a completely different experience to seeing a real event (less stressful). Foster says that what eyewitnesses rememeber in the real world is important but their responses dont matter in the same way in a study as may be less motivated t be accurate. Suggests that researchers like Loftus are too pessimisstic about the effects on misleading info - EWT may be more dependable than studies suggest.
105
What is a limitation of misleading infomation? (Evidence against substiution)
EWT is more accurate for some aspects of an event than for others. Sutherland and Hayne showed participants a video, when they were asked misleading questions, the recall was more accurate on central features than peripheral ones. Attention was on the central features which were resistant to misleading info. Suggests the original memories for central details survived and were not distorted, an outcome not predicted by substiution.
106
What is a limitation of misleading infomation? (Evidence challenging memory conformity)
There is evidence that post event discussion actually alters EWT. Wright and Skagerberg showed 2 versions of a film clip. In one the muggers hair was dark brown and in the other it was light brown. They discussed the clips in pairs having seen different ones. They reported a blend of what they had seen and what the co witness had seen so they would have said medium brown. Shows memory is distorted by contamination by misleading post event discussion rather than a result of memory conformity.
107
What is the extra evaluation point for misleading infomation? (Demand characteristics)
Lab studies have identified misleading info as a cause of inaccurate EWT by being able to control variables. But Zaragoza and McCloskey argue that ansers given are due to demand characteristics. They want to be helpful and not let the researcher down, so they will guess when asked a question they dont know.
108
What is anxiety?
State of physical and emotional arousal involving having worried thoughts and feelings of tension, increased heart rate and sweatiness.
109
What is Johnson and Scotts research into anxiety having a negative effect on recall?
While seated in a waiting room, participants in a low anxiety condition heard a casual conversation and saw a man walking past holding a pen and with grease on his hands. In the high anxiety condition they heard a heated argument and sound of breaking glass. A man walked out the room holding a blood covered knife.
110
What were the findings and conclusions of Johnson and Scott's study?
Participants later picked out the man from a set of 50 photos 49% who were in the low anxiety condition could identify him whereas only 33% in the high anxiety condition could. Tunnel theory argues that people have an enhanced memory for central events, they were so focused on the weapon it reduces the recall of other details.
111
What was Yuille and Cutshall's research into anxiety having a positve effect on recall?
Study of an actual shooting in a gun shop in Canada where the shop owner shot a theif dead. 21 witnesses and 13 took part. They were interviewed 4 or 5 months after the incident and this was compared to their original police interview at the time. Accuracy was determined by number of details reported in each account. Also had to rate how stressed they felt on a 7 point scale and if they had any emotional problems since.
112
What were the findings and conclusions of Yuille and Cutshall's study?
Witnesses were very accurate in their accounts and there was little change in the amount recalled or accuracy. Particpants who had the highest levels of stress were most accurate - 88% compared to 75%. Shows that anxiety does not have a detrimental affect on accuracy of Eyewitness memory and may even enhance it.
113
What is the Yerkes-Dodson law?
Relationship between emotional arousal and performance is like an inverted U. Performance will increase with stress but only up to a point.
114
How did Deffenbacher explain contradicotry findings on effects of anxiety?
Reviewed 21 studies of EWT and used the Yerkes-Dodson law to explain his findings. When we witness a crime we become emotionally and physiologically aroused so we experience anxiety as well as physiological changes in the body. Lowever levels of arousal produce lower levels of recall accuracy and memory becomes more accurate as arousal increases. However there is an optimum level of anxiety which is the point of maximum accuracy, if someone experiences anymore recall, their performance will decline.
115
What is a limitation of the anxiety theory? (Unusualness not anxiety)
Johnson and Scotts study may not have tested anxiety. Participants may have focused on the weapon as they were suprised rather than scared. Pickel did an experiment using scissors, a handgun, a wallet or a raw chicken as handheld items in a hair salon (scissors are high anxiety low unusualness) eyewitness accuracy was poorer in high unusualness conditions (chicken and gun) The weapon focus effect may be due to unusualness rather than threat so tells us notrhing specifically about effects of anxiety on EWT.
116
What is a strength of the anxiety theory? (Support for negative effects)
Study by Valentine and Mesout support weapon focus finding negative effects on recall. Used an objective measure of heart rate to measure anxiety in participants and divide them into low and high anxiety groups. Anxiety clearly distrupted ability to recall details about the actor in London Dungeon's labrynth. Suggests that a high level of anxiety does have negative effect on recall.
117
What is a strength of the anxiety theory? (Support for positive effects)
Christianson and Hubinette interviewed 58 witnesses to actual bank robberies in Sweden. Some were directly involved and others indirectly. Assumed that those directly involved would experience most anxiety. Recall was nore than 75% accurate across all witnesses and even more so in direct victims. Findings from real life crimes show that anxiety does have a positive effect on recall and may even enchance it.
118
What is a limitation of the anxiety theory? (Support for positive effects)
Christianson and Hubinette interviewed the participants several months after the event so had no control over what happended to them in interveneing time. The effects of anxiety may have been overwhelmed by thee factors and impossible to assess by the time they were interviewed. Lack of control over confounding variables may be responsible for the findings, invalidating their support.
119
What is the extra evaluation point for anxiety theory? (Problems with the inverted U theory)
Reasonable explanation of the contradictory findings linking anxiety to increased and decreased recall. However ir ignores the fact anxiety has many elements e.g cognitive, behavioural, emotional and physical. Just focuses on physical arousal and assumes this is the only aspect linked to EWT. But the way we think about a stressful sitution may also be important.
120
What is Fisher and Geiselman's cognitive interview?
A method of interviewing eyewitnesses to help them retreive more accurate memories, uses 4 main techniques which are based on psychological insights into how memory works.
121
What is the first technique in the cognitive interview?
Report everything-Include every detail of the event, even if it seems irelevant as they may trigger more important memories.
122
What is the second technique in the cognitive interview?
Reinstate the context- Return to the original crime scene in your mind and imagine the environment and emotions.
123
What is the third technique in the cognitive interview?
Reverse the order- Recall events in a different order from which they happened.This is to prevent people reporting their expectations of what would happen rather than reporting the actual events and also prevents dishonesty
124
What is the fourth technique in the cognitive interview?
Change perspective- Recall the incident from other peoples perspective. To disrupt the effect of expectations and also the effect of schema. The schema you have for a particular setting generates expectations of what would have happened and its the schema that recalled rather than what really happened.
125
What is the enhanced cognitive interview?
Fisher developed some extra elements of the CI to focus on the social dynamics of the interaction. e.g the interviewer needs to know when to establish eye contact and when to relinquish it. Also includes ideas such as reducing anxiety, minimising distraction and getting the witness to speak slower and asking open ending questions.
126
What is a strength of the cognitive interview? (Support for it's effectivness)
A meta analysis by Kohnken combined data from 55 studies comparing the CI with the standard police interview. CI gave an average 41% increase in accurate info. only 4 studies showed no difference between interview types. CI is an effective technique in helping witnesses recall info that is stored in memory but not easily accessible.
127
What is a limitation of the cognitive interview? (Support for it's effectivness)
Kohnken also found an increase in amount of inaccurate info recalled by participants espcially in the ECI which produced more inaccurate details than the CI. They may sacrifice quality of EWT in favour of quantity. Eyewitness evidence from CIs/ECIs should be treated with caution.
128
What is a limitation of the cognitive interview? (Some elements may be more useful)
Not all it's elements are equally effective or useful. Milne and Bull found that each of the 4 techniques used alone produced more info than the standard police interview. Found that using a combo of reinstate the context and report everything produced better recall than any of the elements or combination of them. Confirmed suspicions that some aspects of the CI are more useful than others. Casts some doubt on the overall credibility of the CI.
129
What is a limitation of the cognitive interview? (Time consuming)
Police officers may be reluctant to use it as it takes more time and training than the standard police interview. e.g more time is needed to establish rapport with a witness and allow them to relax. Also needs special training and most forces only have resources to provide only a few hours. The complete CI is not a realistic method of police to use and it may be better to focus on a few key elements.
130
What is the extra evaluation point for the cognitve interview? (Variations of the CI)
Police forces have taken a pick and mix approach to the various techniques in CI so hard to compare the effectivness of different approaches in research studies. However this piskc and mix approach is more flexible as individuals can develop their own approach according to what works best for them.
