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Psychology > Topic 5: Psychopathology > Flashcards

Topic 5: Psychopathology Flashcards

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1
Q

What is statistical infrequency?

A

Occurs when an individual has a less common characteristic for example being more depressed or less intelligent than most of the population.

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2
Q

How is intellectual disability disorder an example of statistical infrequency?

A

In a normal distribution most people (68%) have an average IQ of 85-115. Only 2% have a score below 70, they are seen as abnormal and can be diagnosed with IDD.

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3
Q

What is the normal distribution?

A

Majority of people’s scores will cluster around an average and further we go above or below the average fewer people will attain that score. produced a bell curve

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4
Q

What is deviation from social norms?

A

Concerns behaviour that is different from accepted standards of behaviour in a society.

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5
Q

How are norms culture specific?

A

What is thought of as normal in one culture may not be in another, e.g homosexuality. (In Brunei, a new law was introduced saying sex between men would be punished by stoning to death)

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6
Q

How can deviation from social norms be used to diagnose Antisocial personality disorder?

A

A person with APD is aggressive, impulsive and irresponsible, all traits whihc breach social norms accross cultures. An important symptom of APD according to the DsM is ‘absence of prosocial internal standards associated with failure to conform to lawful and culturally normative ethical behaviour.’ We are making judgement that psychopaths are abnormal as don’t conform to our morla standards.

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7
Q

What is a strength of statistical infrequency? (Real world application)

A

Useful in clinical practise as a way to diagnose and assess severity of symptoms. E.G a diagnosis of IDD needs an IQ of below 70. The Beck depression inventory a score of 30+ (top 5% of respondents) indicates severe depression. Shows the value of the SI critereon in its ability to diagnose and asses.

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8
Q

What is a limitation of statistical infrequency? (Unusual characteristics can be positive)

A

For every person with an IQ below 70, there are is someone with an IQ above 130 but we wouldn’t think they would be abnormal. Shows that being at one end of a psychological spectrum doesn’t make someone abnormal. It can’t be the sole basis for defining abnormality.

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9
Q

What is the extra evaluation point of statistical infrequency? (benefits vs problems)

A

Some unusual people benefit from being classed as abormal, e.g someone with a low IQ and is diagnosed with IDD can then seek support, and someone with a high BDI score may seek therapy. However, not all unusual people benefit from labels, e.g someone with a low IQ who can cope with their chosen lifestyle, there is social stigma attached to such labels.

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10
Q

What is a strength of deviation from social norms? (Real world application)

A

Useful in clinical practise. Can be used to diagnose APD as the symptoms (recklessness, agression etc) are all deviations from social norms. Can also diagnose schizoptypal personality disorder where the term strange is used to characterize the thinking, behaviour and appearence of people with the disorder. Shows that the criteron has value in psychiatry.

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11
Q

What is a limitation of deviation from social norms? (Cultural and situational relativism)

A

There is variability between social norms in different cultures and situations. People label people based on their standards. e.g hearing voices may be normal in one culture but abnormal in another. Hard to judge deviation from social norms across different cultures and situations.

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12
Q

What is the extra evaluation point for deviation from social norms? (Human rights abuses)

A

Labelling someone as abnormal using deviation from social norm carries the risk of unfair labelling and leaving them open to human rights abuse. e.g nymphomania (womens uncontrollable or excessive sex desire) has been used to control women. However we need to use deviation from social norms to diagnose conditions such as APD.

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13
Q

What is the failure to function adequately?

A

Occurs when people are unable to cope with the everyday demands of day to day living. e.g can’t maintain basic standards of nutrition or hygeine or can’t hold down a job or relationship.

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14
Q

What are Rosenhan and Seligman’s additional signs that show someone is failing to function?

A
  • When a person no longer conforms to standard interpersonal rules like maintaining eye contact or respecting personal space
  • Severe personal distress
  • Irrational or dangerous behaviour towards themselves or others.
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15
Q

What is deviation from ideal mental health?

A

Occurs when someone does not meet Jahoda’s criterea for good mental health.

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16
Q

What are some of Jahoda’s ctiterea for good mental health?

A
  • No symptoms or distress
  • Can cope with stress
  • Have good self esteem
  • Indenpendent of other people.
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17
Q

What is a strength of failure to function adequately? (Represents a threshold for help)

A

Most of us have symptoms of mental disorder at some time, according to Mind 25% of people in UK will experience a mental health problem in any given year. Tends to be at the point we cease to function adequately that people seek professional help. Means treatments and services can be targeted to those who need them most.

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18
Q

What is a limitation of failure to function adequately? (Discrimination and social control)

A

Easy to label non standard lifestyle choices as abnormal. hard to say whether someone is failing to function or if it’s just a lifestyle choice. e.g new age travellers do not live in permanent accommodation or may not work and this may appear abnormal to some. People who make unusual choices are at risk of being labelled as normal and their freedom may be restricted.

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19
Q

What is the extra evaluation point for failure to function? (May not be abnormal)

A

Some circumstances may in which most of us fail to cope for a time e.g bereavment. May be unfair to give someone a label that may cause them probelems in the future just because they can’t cope with difficult circumstances. However failure to function is no less real just becuase the cause is clear, also some people may need professional help to deal with things like bereavment.

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20
Q

What is a strength of deviation from ideal mental health? (A comprehensive definition)

A

The criterea covers most of the reasons we might seek help with mental health. Means an individuals mental health can be meaningfully discussed with a range of professionals who might take different theoretical views. Ideal mental health provides a checklist against which we can assess ourselves or others and discuss issues with a range of professionals.

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21
Q

What is a limitation of deviation of ideal mental health? (May be culture bound)

A

Different elements are not equally applicable across different cultures. Some of Jahoda’s criterea is located in the context of the Uk and US generally. Self actualisation would be seen as self indulgent in lots of cultures. Personal independence has high value in Germany and low in Italy. What defines success is different in different cultures. So it’s hard to apply this concept between cultures.

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22
Q

What is the extra evaluation point for deviation from ideal mental health? (Extremelty high standards)

A

Very few of us attain to all the criterea all at once so can be disheartening to see an impossible set of standards to live up to. However, having such a comprehensive set of criterea for mental health to work towards might be of practical value to someone who wants to understand and improve their mental health.

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23
Q

What is the definition of a phobia?

A

An irrational fear of an object or a situation. The extent of the fear is out of proportion to any real danger caused by the phobic stimulus.

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24
Q

What is a specific phobia?

A

Phobia of an object, e.g an animal or a situation, e.g flying.

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25
What is social anxiety?
Phobia of social situations, e.g public speaking.
26
What is agoraphobia?
phobia of going outside or being in a public place.
27
What are the behavioural characteristics of phobias?
1. Panic- crying, screaming or running away 2. Avoidance- Make a conscious effort to avoid the phobic stimulus. 3. Endurance- When the person chooses to remain in the presence of the phobic stimulus.
28
What are the emotional characteristics of phobias?
1. Anxiety- unpleasant state of high arousal disproportionate to the threat. 2. Fear- short term but intense response. 3. Emotional response is unreasonable- anxiety or fear is disproportionate to the threat.
29
What are the cognitive characteristics of phobias?
1. Selective attention to the phobic stimulus- The person will keep their attention on the phobic stimulus and will find it hard to concentrate on what they are supposed to be doing. 2. Irrational beliefs- May hold unfounded thoughts in relation to the phobic stimuli that can't easily be explained or that don't have any basis in reality. 3. Cognitive distortions- The perceptions of the phobic stimulus may be inaccurate and unrealistic.
30
Who proposed the 2 process model on the behavioural approach to phobias?
Mowrer
31
What was Watson and Rayner's study of 'Little Albert'?
Presented a white rat (NS) to Albert and he showed no unusual anxiety.Then paired the white rat with a loud, frightening noise by banging an iron bar close to his ear. The noise is the UCS and it produced the UCR of fear. The rat was then associated with the noise, the rat becomes the CS and fear becomes the CR.
32
How is the conditioning generalised to other objects.
When showed other furry objects like a santa claus beared or fur coat Albert displayed distress.
33
How has Mowrer explained phobias maintained by operant conditioning?
Whenever we avoid a phobic stimulus we successfully escape the fear and anxiety that we would have experienced if we remained there, this reduction in fear reinforces the avoidance behaviour and so the phobia is maintained.
34
What is a strength of the 2 process model? (Real world application)
Has real world application in exposure therapy e,g systematic desensitisation. The idea that a phobia is maintained by avoidance of the phobic stimulus is important in explaining why people with phobias benefit from being exposed to the phobic stimulus as the avoidance behaviour is prevented so ceases to be reinforced by the reduction of anxiety so avoidance declines. Shows the the 2 process approach has value as it identifies a means of treating phobias.
35
What is a limitation of the 2 process model? (Cognitive aspects of phobias)
Does not account for cognitive aspects of phobias. Phobias aren't just avoidance behaviours, they also have a significant cognitive component like irrational beliefs. The model explains avoidance behaviour but does not offer an adequate explanation for phobic cognitions. The model does not completely explain the symptoms of phobias.
36
What is a strength of the 2 process model? (Phobias and traumatic experiences)
There is a link between bad experiences and phobias. Evidence comes from the little albert study and also a study by De Jongh who found that 73% of people who had a fear of dental treatment had experienced a traumatic event involving dentistry, compared to a control of group of low anxiety where only 21% has experienced a traumatic event. Shows there is an association between neutral stimulus and unconditioned response does lead to a phobia.
37
What is a limitation of the 2 process model? (Phobias and traumatic experiences)
Some common phobias like snakes, occur in areas where there aren't many snakes and noone has had a traumatic experience of them. Also not all frightening experiences lead to phobias. Means that the association between phobias and frightening experiences is not as strong as we would expect if behavioural theories provided the full explanation.
38
What is the extra evaluation point for the 2 process model? (learning and evolution)
The 2 process model provides credible explanations, can explain individual phobias. However more general aspects of phobias can be explained by evolutionary theory, e,g we tend to acquire phobias of things that have presented danger in our evolutionary past, this is prepardness.
39
What is systematic desensitisation?
A behavioural therapy designed to gradually reduce phobic anxiety through classical conditioning. Counterconditioning occurs.
40
What is the first process involved in SD?
Anxiety heiarchy- list of situations related to the phobic stimulus ranked on how much phobic they produce.
41
What is the second process involved in SD?
Relaxation- recipricol inhibition occurs as relaxation and anxiety can't occur at the same time. Relaxation techniques include mental imagery, meditation and breathing exercises.
42
What is the third process involved in SD?
Exposure- Exposed to the phobic stimulus whilst relaxed at each level of the heiarchy/ Treatment is successful when can stay relaxed in the high levels of the heiarchy.
43
What is a strength of SD? (Evidence of effectivness)
Gilroy followed up 42 people who has SD for a spider phobia in 3 45 min sessions. At 3 and 33 months people in the SD group were less fearful than a control group who were treated with just relaxation. In a review Wechsler concluded SD is effective for a range of phobias.
44
What is a strength of SD? (People with learning disabilities)
Cognitive therapy requires rational thought and flooding is too traumatic so SD is the most appropriate treatment for those with learning disabilites.
45
What is the extra evaluation point for SD? (SD in virtual reality)
Exposure through VR can avoid dangerous situations and is cost effective. However Wechsler says it lacks realism so is less effective.
46
What is flooding?
A behavioural therapy where the client is exposed to an extreme form of the phobic stimulus with no gradual build up. Small number of long sessions.
47
How does flooding work?
Works by the extinction of the conditioned fear response. The conditioned stimulus is encountered without the unconditioned stimulus so the conditioned stimulus no longer produces a conditioned response.
48
How do they ensure that flooding is ethically acceptable?
Clients must give informed consent and be prepard for the flooding.
49
What is a strength of flooding? (Cost effective)
It is clinically effective and not expensive, only 1-3 sessions needed. Means more people can be treated at the same cost with flooding than SD.
50
What is a limitation of flooding? (Traumatic)
Schumacher found that participants and therapists rated flooding as more stressful than SD. Has high attrition rates. Therapists may avoid using this treatment.
51
What is the extra evaluation point of flooding? (Symptom substitution)
Behavioural therapies only mask symptoms and don't tackle the underlying causes of the phobia. Persons reported the case of a women with a phobia of death who was treated with flooding, her phobia of death declined but her fear of being critisized worsened. However the only evidence is case studies which may only generalise to the phobias in the study.
52
What is major depressive disorder?
Severe but often short term depression.
53
What is depression?
A mental disorder characterized by low mood and energy levels.
54
What is persistent depressive disorder?
Long term or recurring depression.
55
What is disruptive mood dysregulation disorder?
Childhood temper tantrums.
56
What is premenstrual dysphoric disorder?
Disruption to mood prior to or during menstruation.
57
What are the behavioural characteristics of depression?
Activity levels- lethargy or psychomotor agitation Distruption to sleep and eating behaviour- Hypersomnia/insomnia, increase or decrease in eating. Aggression and self harm- Irritable, verbally or physically agressive towards others or themselves
58
What are the emotional characteristics of depression?
Lowered mood- describe themselves as worthless and empty Anger- Towards the self and others, can lead to behavioural change Lowered self esteem- Some people with depression describe a sense of self of loathing.
59
What are the cognitive characteristics of depression?
Poor concentration- Unable to stick to a task or unable to make decisions. Attending to and dwelling on the negative- See the glass half empty, have a bias towards recalling unhappy events rather than happy ones. Absolutist thinking- Black and white thinking, see a situation as all good or all bad.
60
What is faulty infomation processing?
Attending to the negative aspects of a situation tending towards black and white thinking. E.g if you won 1 million pounds in the lottery instead of being happy you think a person last week could have one 10milliom
61
What is negative self schema?
People interpret all infomation about themselves in a negative way
62
What is Beck's negative triad?
1.Negative view of the world- e.g the world is a cold hard place 2. Negative view of the future- e.g There isn't much chance the economy will get better 3. Negative view of the self- e.g I am a failure. These thoughts occur automatically regardless of what is happening at the time but in depressed people they are uppermost.
63
How did Ellis define irrational thoughts?
Any thoughts can interfere with us being happy and free from pain.
64
What is Ellis' ABC model?
Activating event- A negative life event that triggers an irrational response. Beliefs- Beliefs that lead us to overreact to the activating event, e.g utopianism and musterbation. Consequences- Depression results when we over react to negative life events.
65
What is a strength of Beck's negative triad? (Research support)
In a review, Clark and Beck concluded that not only were cognitive vulnerbilities preceded the depression. This was confirmed in a more recent prospective study by Cohen who tracked the development of 473 adolescents regularly measuring cognitive vulnerability. Found that showing cognitive vulnerbility later led to depression. Shows a link between depression and cognitive vulnerability.
66
What is a strength of Beck's negative triad? (Real world application)
Can be used in screening and treatment for depression. Cohen concluded that assessing cognitive vulnerability allows psychologists to screen young people identifying those most at risk of depression. Understanding cognitive vulnerability can be also be applied to CBT which work by altering the kinds of cognitions that make people vulnerable to depression. Understanding cognitive vulnerability is useful in more than 1 aspect of clinical practise.
67
What is cognitive vulnerability?
Refers to ways of thinking that may predispose a person to becoming depressed e.g faulty infomation processing, negative self schema and the cognitive triad.
68
What is the extra evaluation point for Beck's negative triad? (Partial explanation)
Explains patterns of cognition seen before the onset of depression shwoing the model is at least a partial explanation for depression.However, can't easily explain extremes of anger or hallucinations or delusions.
69
What is a strength of Ellis' ABC model? (Real world application)
Ellis' approach to cognitive therapy is called rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT). By vigoursly arguing with a depressed person the therapist can alter the irrational beliefs that make them unhappy. There is evidence to support the idea that REBT can both change nagative beliefs and relive symptoms of depression (David). Means REBT has real world value.
70
What is a limitation of Ellis' ABC model? (reactive and endogenous depression)
Only explains reactive depression (depression triggered by an activating event) Does not explain endogenous depression, where the cause of depression is not traceable to life events. Means the model is only a partical explanation.
71
What is the extra evaluation point for Ellis' ABC model? (Ethical issues)
Controversial as it places responsibility on the depressed person effectively blaming them. However, if used appropriately, REBT does make some people resilient and feel better.
72
What is cognitive behaviour therapy?
A method of treating mental disorders based on both cognitive and behavioural techniques.
73
What is the cognitive element of CBT?
Client and the therapist work together to clarify the client's problems. They identify goals for the therapy and put together plans to acheive them. Identify where there might be negative or irrational that can be challenged.
74
What is the behaviour element of CBT?
Working to change negative and irrational thoughts and put more effective behaviours into place.
75
What homework tasks might a client under going CBT get and why?
Helps them test the reality of their negative beliefs. Homework could to be to record a time in which people were nice to them. In future sessions if a client says no one is nice to them the therapist can produce this evidence and use it to prove the clients statements are incorrect.
76
What is Ellis's rational emotive behaviour therapy?
An extension of the ABD model to the ABCDE model. D stands for dispute and E stands for effect.
77
What is the central techhnique of REBT?
Identify and dispute irrational thoughts.
78
What happens in REBT?
Challenging an irrational or negative belief involves a vigorous argument, the intended effect is to change the irrational belief and so break the link between negative life events and depression.
79
What is empirical argument?
Disputing whether there is actual evidence to support the negative belief.
80
What is logical argument?
Disputing whether the negative thought logically follows from the facts.
81
What behavioural activation?
Working with depressed individuals to gradually decrease their avoidance and isolation and increase their engagment in activities that improve mood such as exercise.
82
What is a strength of CBT? (Evidence for effectivness)
Lots of studies show that CBT works. For example March compared CBT to antidepressents and also a combination of both when treating 327 depressed adolescents. After 36 weeks 81% of the CBt group, 81% of the antidepressents group and 86% of the both group were significantly improved. So CBT is just as effective as drugs and more so when paired with drugs. Also is fairly breif needing 6-12 sessions so is also cost effective. So CBT is widely seen as the first choice of treatment in public heaalth care systems.
83
What is a limitation of CBT? (Suitability for diverse clients)
Not as effective for severe cases and those with learning disabilities. Clients may not be able to motivate themselves to enage with the cognitive work of the CBT or they may struggle to focus. People with learning disabilities may struggle with the complex rational thinking involved. Sturmey says that any form of psychotherapy is not suitable for people with learning disabilities. So CBT may only be suitable for some people with depression.
84
What is a strength of CBT? (Suitability for diverse clients)
Lewis and Lewis did a review and said that CBT was s effective as drugs and behavioural therapies for severe depression. A review by Taylor said that when used appropriately CBT is effective for people with learning disabilities. So CBT may be suitable for a wider range of people than what was once thought.
85
What is a limitation of CBT? (Relapse rates)
Has high relapse rates. There are concerns over how long the benefits last. Few erly studies of CBT for depression looked at long term effectivness. More recent studies show that long term outcomes suggests long term outcomes are not s good as once assumed. In a study, Ali assessed depression in 439 clients every month for 12 months after a course of CBT. 42% relapsed within 6 months and 53% after a year. So CBT may need to be repeated periodically.
86
What is the extra evaluation point for CBT? (Client preference)
There is lots of evidence to show that when used with appropriate clients, it is effective especially in the short term for tackling symptoms of depression. However, not all clients want to tackle their depression in this way, some may prefer medication, others may want to explore the origins of their symptoms. In a study of client preference Yrondi found that depressed people rated CBT as their least prefered psychological therapy.
87
What is obessive compulsive disorder?
A condition characterised by obsessions and/or compulsive behaviours. Obsessions are cognitive and compulsions are behavioural. Most people have both obsessions and compulsions.
88
What is trichotillomania?
Compulsive hair pulling.
89
What is hoarding disorder?
Compulsive gathering of possessions and inability to part with anything regardless of it's value.
90
What is excoriation disorder?
Compulsive skin picking.
91
What are the elements to compulsive behaviours?
1. They are repetitive 2. They reduce anxiety produced by obsessions.
92
What percentage of people with OCD have only compulsions?
Around 10%
93
How else might behaviour of people with OCD be characterised?
Avoidance from situations that may trigger their anxiety. e.g people who wash compulsively may avoid contact with germs which could interfere with everyday life.
94
What are the emotional characteristics of OCD?
1. Anxiety and distress caused by obsessions and compulsions. 2. Accompanying depression- low mood and lack of enjoyment in activities. 3. Guilt and disgust- irrational guilt over minor moral issues or disgust which could be directed at the self or something external.
95
What are the cognitive charactersitics of OCD?
Obsessive thoughts- major cognitive feature for 90% of people with OCD. vary from person to person but are always unpleasant. Cognitive coping strategies- e.g things like praying to respond to obsessive thoughts. Temporary relief but may seem abnormal and distract from everyday tasks. Insight into excessive anxiety- Aware that their obsessions and compulsions are not rational, however people with OCd may get thoughts about the worst case scenarios that might result if their anxieties aren't justifeied. also tend to be hypervigilant.
96
What was Lewis' study into the genetic explanation of OCD?
Found genes are involved in individual vulnerability to OCD. 37% of his patients has a parent with OCD and 21% had siblings with OCD. Suggests that OCD runs in families and causes genetic vulnerability to certainty of OCD.
97
What does the diathesis - stress model tell us?
Certain genes leave some people more likely to develop of mental disorder but it is not certain, some environmental stress is necessary to trigger the condition.
98
What are candidate genes?
Genes which create vulnerability for OCD. Some are involved in regulating the development of the serotonin system. e.g the gene 5HT1- D beta is implicated in transport of serotonin across synapses.
99
What does it mean for OCD to be polygenic?
OCD is not caused by one single gene but by a combination of genetic variations that together increase vulnerability.
100
What did Taylor find about OCD being polygenic?
Analysed findings of previous studies and found that up 230 different genes may be involved in OCD. Including those associated with serotonin and dopamine.
101
What does aetiologically heterogeneous mean?
Origins of OCD vary from one person to another. One group of genes may cause it one person and a different group of genes cause it in another. Different types of OCD also may be the result of particualr genetic variations.
102
What is the role of serotonin?
Regulates mood
103
What is the role of serotonin in OCD?
People with OCD have lower levels of serotonin. Means that normal transmission of mood relevant infomation does not take place and the person may experience low mood. At least some cases of OCD may be explained by reduction in the functioning of the serotonin system in the brain.
104
What affects decision making in OCD?
Abormal functioning of the lateral frontal lobes which are repsonsible for logical thinking and decision making.
105
What does the parahippocampal gyrus do?
Processes unpleasant emotions, functions abnormally in OCD.
106
What is a strength of the genetic explanation for OCD? (research suppport)
Evidence from a variety of sources that says genetic makeup makes people more vulnerable to OCD. One source of evidence is from twin studies, Nestadt reviewed twin studies and found 68% of MZ twins shared OCD as opposed to 31% of DZ twins. Marini and Stebnicki did a family study and found a person with a family member with OCD is 4X more likely to develop it than someone without. So must be some genetic influence on development of OCD.
107
What is a limitation of the genetic explanation of OCD? (Environmental risk factors)
Strong evidence that genetic variation can make a person more or less vulnerable to OCD but environmental risk factors can also trigger or increase the risk of developing OCD. Cromer found that over half the OCD clients in their sample had experienced a traumatic event in the past. OCD was more severe in those who had had one or more traumas. So genetic vulnerability only provides a partial explanation for OCD.
108
What is the extra evaluation point for the genetic explanation of OCD? (Animal studies)
There is evidence from animal studies showing that particular genes are associated with repetitive behaviours in other species for example in mice - Ahmari. However although mice and humans share most genes, the human mind and brain are much more complex and it may not be possible to generalise from animal repetitive behaviour to human OCD.
109
What is a strength of the neural explanation of OCD? (Research support)
Antidepressents that work purely on serotonin are effective in reducing OCD symptoms suggesting serotonin is related to OCD. Also OCD symptoms form part of conditions that are known to be biological in origin such as parkinsons disease which causes muscle tremors and paralysis- Nestadt. If a biological condition produces OCD symptoms then we may assume the biological processes underlie OCD. Suggests that biological factors may also be responsible for OCD.
110
What is a limitation of the neural explanation of OCD? (No unique neural system)
The serotonin OCD link may not be unique tp OCD. Many people with OCD also experience clinical depression. having 2 disorders is called co-morbidity. This depression probably involves disruption to the action of serotonin. Serotonin activity distruption may actually be due to the depression not the OCD. So serotonin may not be relevant to OCD symptoms.
111
What is the extra evaluation point for the neural explanation of OCD? (Correlation and causality)
Evidence shows that some neural systems do work normally in people with OCD, it is the brain dysfunction causing the OCD. However this is simply a correlation between neural abnormality and OCD and such correlations do not necessarily indicate a causal relationship. It is possible the OCD causes the abnormal brain function or both are influenced by a third factor.
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Psychology (6 decks)

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