Topic 6: Research Methods Flashcards
(121 cards)
1
Q
What is an aim of an experiment?
A
Statement of what the researcher intends to investigate.
2
Q
What is a hypothesis?
A
Statement that states the relationship between the varibales being investigated.
3
Q
What is a directional hypothesis?
A
The researcher makes clear the sort of difference that is anticipated between 2 conditions.
4
Q
What is a non directional hypothesis?
A
Simply just states that there is a difference between conditons but the nature of the difference is not specified.
5
Q
What is the independent variable?
A
Some aspect of the experimental situation that is manipulated by the researcher so the effect on the Dv can be measured.
6
Q
What is the dependent variable?
A
The variable that is measured by the researcher. Any effect on the DV should be caused by change in IV.
7
Q
What are the 2 levels of the IV?
A
Experimental condition and control condition.
8
Q
What is operationalisation?
A
Clearing defining variables in terms of how they can be measured.
9
Q
What are extraneous variables?
A
Any variable other than the Iv that affect the Dv if not controlled. Described as nuisance variables that do not vary systematically with the IV. Don’t confound the findings of the study just make it harder to detect a result.
10
Q
What are confounding variables?
A
Vary systematiacally with the IV so can’t tell if any change in the Dv is down to the Iv or the confounding variable.
11
Q
What are demand characteristics?
A
Any cue from the reseacher or the situation that participants may interpret as revealing the purpose of the investigation which may lead the participant to change their behaviour.
12
Q
What are investigator effects?
A
Any effect of the investigator’s behaviour on the research outcome including everything from the design of the study to how they interact with participants.
13
Q
What is randomisation?
A
The use of chance methods to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of experimental conditions.
14
Q
What is standardisation?
A
Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in an experiment.
15
Q
What is experimental design?
A
The different ways participants can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions.
16
Q
What is an independent groups design?
A
2 separate groups of participants are allocated to 2 separate conditions of an experiment.
17
Q
What is a repeated measures design?
A
All participants experience all conditions of the experiment.
18
Q
What is a matched pairs design?
A
Similar participants are paired up on a variable relevant to the experiment. The one participant from each pair would be allocated to a different condition
19
Q
What are the strengths of using independant groups design?
A
Order effects are not an issue and they will less likely to guess the aims of the experiment.
20
Q
What are the limitations of using independant groups design?
A
Less economical than repeated measures as each participant only contributes to a single result . 2X as many participants needed to produce equivalent data to that collected on a repeated measures design. Increases time/money spent on recruiting participants.
21
Q
What are the strengths of using repeated measures design?
A
Participant variables are controlled therefore have a high validity and fewer participants are needed so is more economical.
22
Q
What are the limitations of using repeated measures design?
A
Each participant has to do 2 tasks and the order of these may be significant (There are order effects) Order effects may rise due to boredom or fatigue that may affect performance on second task or performance may improve due to practise.
Also more likely they will work out the aim of the study and so respond to demand characteristics.
23
Q
What are the strengths of using matched pairs design?
A
Order effects and demand characteristics less of an issue.
24
Q
What are the limitations of using matched pairs design?
A
Matching may be time consuming and expensive especially if a pre test is involved so is less economical.
Though there is some attempt to reduce participant variables, people can be matched exactly, still some differences that affect the DV.
25
What is counterbalancing?
An attempt to control for the effects of order in a repeated measures design. Half the participants experience the conditions in one order and the other half in the other order.
26
What is a lab experiment?
Takes place in a highly controlled environment where the researcher manipulates the IV and measures the effect on the DV whilst maintaining strict control of extraneous variables. researchers go to lab.
27
What are the strengths of a lab experiment?
Have a high internal validity due to control of confounding and extraneous variables. So any effect on the DV is down to manipulation of the IV so we can more certain about demonstrating cause and effect.
High level of control also means replication is possible to check the findings are valid and not just a one off.
28
What are the limitations of a lab experiment?
Low external validity as may lack generalisability due to artificial environment People may behave in unusual ways in unfamiliar conexts so their behaviour can't be generalised beyond the lab.
May be aware they are being tested to respond to demand characteristics.
Tasks don't represent real life experiences -Low mundane realism.
29
What is a field experiment?
Experiment that takes place in a natural setting where the Iv is manipulated. Researchers goes to participant's usual environment.
30
What are the strengths of a field experiment?
High mundane realism as environment is more natural and may produce behaviour that is more valid and authentic, may also be unaware they are being studied - High external validity.
31
What are the limitations of a field experiment?
Lower internal validity due to loss of control of confounding and extraneous variables. Means cause and effect between the IV and DV is harder to establish and precise replication is not possible.
If participants are unaware they are being studied they cannot give consent so may be an invasian of privacy.
32
What is a natural experiment?
An experiment where the change in the Iv is not bought about by the researcher but would have happened even if the researcher had not been there. Can be measured in the field or a lab
33
What are strengths of a natural experiment?
They provide opportunites for research that may not otherwise be undertaken due to practical and ethical reasons.
Have a high external validity as involve the study of real world issues and problems as they happen.
34
What are the limitations of a natural experiment?
Natural occuring event may only happen very rarely, reducing the opportunities for research. May limit the scope for generalisability to similar situations.
May not be random allocation to experimental conditions so reseachers may not be sure if it's the IV affecting the DV.
Lab research may lack realism and demand characteristics may be an issue.
35
What is a quasi experiment?
Iv is based off an exisiting difference between the people. Can be measured in the field or a lab
36
What are the strengths of a quasi experiment?
Carried oit under controlled conditions so share some strengths of a lab study.
37
What are the limitations of a quasi experiment?
Can't randomly allocate people in different conditions so may be adding confounding variables.
The IV is not deliberately changed so we can't claim the IV has caused any observed change.
38
What is population?
Refers to the large group of individuals that a researcher is interested in studying. Often called the target population.
39
What is a sample?
A smaller group who take part in the research investigation. Draw from the traget population and is representative of that population so we can generalise findings.
40
What is random sampling?
All members have an equal chance of being selected. Obtain a list of all members of target population. Assign all the names a number. The actual sample is selected through a lottery method.
41
What are the strengths of random sampling?
Potentially an unbiased method. Confounding and extraneous variables should be equally divided between groups enchancing the internal validity.
42
What are the limitations of random sampling?
Can be difficult and time consuming to conduct
You may still end up with a sample that is unrepresentative
Selected participants refuse to take part so end up with a volunteer sample.
43
What is systematic sampling?
When every nth member of a target population is selected. A sampling frame is produced which is a list of people in the target population organised into e.g alphabetical order. A sampling system is then nominated (e.g every 3rd person) May being from a randomly determined start to reduce bias.
44
What are the strengths of systematic sampling?
An objective method, once the system for selection is chosen, the researcher has no influence over who is chosen.
45
What are the limitations of systematic sampling?
May be time consuming
People may refuse to take part resulting in a volunteer sample.
46
What is a stratified sampling?
Researchers divide subjects into subgroups called strata based on characteristics they share. Compostion of sample represents the proportions of people in certain subgroups (strata)
The researcher first identifies the different strata within the population, then the proportions needed for the sample to be representative can be worked out. Finally the participants that make up each stratum are randomly selected.
47
What are the strengths of stratified sampling?
It provides a representative sample as it is designed to accurately relfect the composition of the population so findings can be generalised.
48
What are the limitations of stratified sampling?
Identified strata can't reflect all the ways that people are different, so complete representation is not possible.
49
What is opportunity sampling?
As gaining representative samples is very hard, researcher can decide to select anyone who happens to be willing and available. They may ask whoever is around at the time of their study.
50
What are the strengths of opportunity sampling?
Convenient and is less costly in terms of time and money.
51
What are the limitations of opportunity sampling?
Sample is unrepresentative of the target population as drawn from a very specific area so findings can't be generalised to the target population.
The researcher has complete control over selection of participants so may avoid certain people (researcher bias)
52
What is volunteer sampling?
Participants select themselves to be part of the sample, called self selection. May see it's taking place in an advert.
53
What are the strengths of volunteer sampling?
Requires minimal input from the researcher so is less time consuming
The participants are also more engaged.
54
What are the limitations of volunteer sampling?
Volunteer bias is an issue, asking for volunteers may attract a certain profile of a person e.g one who is curious and trying to please the researcher. so findings can't be generalised to target population.
55
What are ethical issues?
They arise when a conflict or dilemma exists between participant's rights and the researchers needs to gain valuable and meaningful findings.
56
What is informed consent?
Involves making participants aware of the aims of the experiment, the procedure, their rights and what the data will be used for. Participants can then make an informed judgement whether or not to take part.
This, to researchers, may make the study meaningless as they will know the aims so behaviour won't be natural.
57
How do you deal with informed consent?
Participants should issued with a consent letter detaling all info that may affect their decision to join that they must sign. For investigations involving children under 16, parental consent is needed .
58
What is deception?
Deliberately misleading or witholding infomation from participants at any stage of the investigation. It is acceptable if it does not cause the participants any distress.
59
What is protection from harm?
Should be protected from physical and psychological harm. They should be reminded that they have to right to withdraw at any point.
60
How to deal with deception/protection from harm?
Should be given a full debreif at the end where participants are made aware of the true aims of the investigation and any details they were not supplied with.
Told what their data will be used for and must be given the right to withdraw during the study and withold data.
Reassured their behaviour was normal
offered counselling after embarrasment or stress.
61
What is privacy and confidentiality?
Participants have the right to control infomation about themselves-privacy
Confidentiality refers to our right to to have any personal data protected.
62
How to deal with confidentiality?
Hold no personal details - maintain anonymity
Refer to participants using numbers or initials
During breifing and debreifing they are reminded their data will be protected and won't be shared with other researchers.
63
What is presumptive consent?
Ask a similar group of people to the participants whether the study is acceptable. If they agree then the consent of the original participants is presumed.
64
What is prior general consent?
Participants give permission to take part in a number of different studies-including one that will involve deception. By consenting participants are effectively consenting to be deceived.
65
What is retrospective consent?
Participants are asked for their consent after taking part in the study.
66
What is a pilot study?
A small scale version of the investigation that takes place before the real thing. To check the procedures, materials, measuring scales work etc. Researcher can then modify or make changes.
67
What is a single blind procedure?
Participants aren't aware of aims or conditions until the end to control for demand characteristics so expectations can't influence behaviour.
68
What is a double blind procedure?
Neither the researcher or participants know the aims or conditions so expectations can;t influence behaviour.
69
What is a naturalistic observation?
Watching and recording behaviour where it would naturally take place.
70
What is a controlled observation?
Watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment.
71
What is a covert observation?
Behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent.
72
What is an overt observation?
Behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent.
73
What is a participant observation?
The researcher becomes a member of the group they are observing.
74
What is a non participant observation?
The researcher remains outside the group they are observing.
75
What are the strengths of all observations?
They give a special insight into behaviour as people do not act the same as they say they would.
76
What are the limitations of all observations?
Observer bias, the observer's interpretation of the situation may be affected by their expectations. This can be reduced by having more than 1 observer.
77
What are the strengths of using a naturalistic observation?
High external validity as findings can be generalised to everyday life.
78
What are the limitations of using a naturalistic observation?
Replication is difficult due to lack of control of variables so has a low internal validity. Lack of control over confounding and extraneous varibles so hard to judge patterns of behaviour.
79
What are the limitations of using a controlled observation?
Low external validity so findings can't be generalised to everyday life.
80
What are the strengths of using a controlled observation?
Control over confounding and extraneous variables so replication becomes easier.
81
What are the strengths of using covert observations?
Removes the problem of demand characteristics and ensures all behaviour is natural. Increases the internal validity.
82
What are the limitations of using covert observations?
Ethically questionable as people can't consent to being observed.
83
What are the strengths of using an overt observation?
More ethically acceptable as people can consent.
84
What are the limitations of using an overt observation?
Knowledge they are being observed may influence their behaviour.
85
What are the strengths of using participant observations?
reseacher gets an increased insight into participants lives increasing the external validity of the findings.
86
What are the limitations of using participant observations?
Researcher may identify too strongly with the group and lose objectivity. Called adopting a local lifestyle when the line between being a researcher and a participant becomes blurred.
87
What are the strengths of using non participant observations?
Maintain an objective psychological distance from the participants so less danger of adopting a local lifestyle.
88
What are the limitations of using non participant observations?
May lose the valuable insight gained as are far too removed from the people and behaviours they are studying.
89
What is an unstructured observation?
Writing down everything you see, produces accounts that are rich in detail. Good for small scale observations and when there are few participants.
90
What are structured observations?
When you simplify the target behaviours into behavioural categories.
91
What are behavioural categories?
When a target behaviour is broken up into components which are observable and measureable. e.g if the target behaviour is affection it could be split into kissing,hugging smiling etc.
92
What is event sampling?
Counting the number of times a particular behaviour occurs in a target individual or group.
93
What is time sampling?
Recording behaviour within a pre established time frame e.g every 3 seconds.
94
What are the strengths of structured observations?
Involve the use of behavioural categories making the recording of data simpler and more systematic.
Likely to produce quantitative data so easier to analyse and compare data between participants.
95
What are the strengths of unstructured observations?
Benefit from more richness and depth of detail obtained.
96
What are the limitations of unstructured observations?
produces qualitative data which is harder to record and analyse.
Greater risk of observer bias as no behavioural categories so may only respond to behaviour that catches their eye and they may not be important ot useful.
97
What should researchers ensure when using behavioural categories?
The categories must be as clear and unambiguous as possible. They must not be open to any further interpretations. They must be self evident, observable and measureable.
All possible forms of taregt behaviours should be in the checklist. No dustbin category.
Categories should be exlusive and not overlap.
98
What are the strengths of using event sampling?
Useful when the traget behaviour occurs quite infrequently and could be missed if time sampling was used.
99
What are the limitations of using event sampling?
If target behaviour is too complex, the observer may over look important details.
100
What are the strengths of using time sampling?
Effective in reducing the number of observations that have to be made so requires less effort.
101
What are the limitations of using time sampling?
May not be representative of their behaviour as a whole.
102
What is a self report technqiue?
Any method in which is person has to state or explain their own feelings, behaviours or opinions related to a topic.
103
What are questionnaires?
Set of pre set written questions used to assess peoples thoughts and feelings about something. can be used to assess the DV.
104
What is an open question?
Respondents are free to answer in any way they wish, does not have a fixed range of answers. Produce qualitative data.
105
What is a closed question?
Offers a fixed number of responses. e.g answering with yes or no or using a number scale. Produces quantitative data.
106
What are the strengths of questionnaires?
Cost effective. Can collect large numbers of data quickly.
Can be completed without the interviewer present which also reduces effort.
Data is straightforward to analyse of produces quantitative data, can use statistical analysis and comparisons between different groups can be made using graphs.
107
What are the limitations of interviews?
Responses may not be truthful. people may want to present themselves in a positive light which may affect their answers. This is a form of demand characteristic called social desirability bias.
Often produce response bias where respondents tend to always answer in a similar way, e.g by always ticking yes. As they complete them too fast and don't read the questions properly. Acquisence bias is when we agree with items on a questionnaire regardless of the content of the question.
108
What is an interview?
A live encounter where an interviewer asks a set of questions to assess an interviewee's thoughts or experiences.
109
What is a structured interview?
Made of a pre determined set of questions that are asked in a fixed order.
110
What is an unstructured interview?
No set questions. it is more like a conversation where there is a general aim that a certain topic will be discussed and interaction tends to be free flowing. Encourgaed to expand and elaborate on answers.
111
What is a semi structured interview?
There is a list of questions that have been worked out in advance but the interviewee can also expand and ask follow up questions.
112
What are the strengths of structured interviews?
easy to replicate due to standardised format. Format also reduces differences between interviewers.
113
What are the limitations of structured interviews?
Interviewers can't deviate from the topic or explain the questions so will limit richness of data collected and limits unexpected infomation.
114
What are the strengths of unstructured interviews?
Much more flexible. Interviewer gets a better insight into the interviewee.
115
What are the limitations of unstrucured interviews?
Increased risk of interviewer bias. Hard to analyse data and draw conclusions as may be lots of irelevant infomation.
Interviewers may not be truthful due to social desirability.
116
What is a likert scale?
A scale where the respondent indicates their agreement with a statement using a 5 point scale. ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree.
117
What is a rating scale?
A scale where respondents identify a value that represents their strength of feeling about a particualr topic , from 1-5
118
What is a fixed choice option?
Includes a list of possible options and respondents must indicate those that apply to them.
119
What is an interview schedule?
List of the questions the interviewer intends to cover. Should be standardised to prevent interview bias.
120
What should the environment be like in a one to one interview?
A quiet room away from other people as this will increase the likelihood the interviewee will open up. Start with some neutral questions to make them feel comfortable and establish rapport. Interviewees are reminded the info they share with be confidential.
121
What are 3 errors in question design that should be avoided?
1. Overuse of jargon
2. Emotive language and leading questions
3. Double barrelled questions and double negatives.
