Topic 3: Attachment Flashcards

Question

What is a Limitation of Schaffer and Emerson's research? (Poor evidence for the asocial stage)

Answer 1

May be lack of validity in the measures used to assess attachment used in the asocial stage. Young babies lack coordination and are fairly immobile, anxiety may only be shown in very subtle ways. So hard for mothers to observe and report back on signs of anxiety and attachment at this age. So babies may be more social but appear asocial due to flawed methods.

Answer 2

Practical application in day care. Better to put children in day care during the asocial and indiscriminate stages due to being able to be comforted by any adult and no stranger and separation anxiety. But during the specific attachment stage this could be problematic especially starting day care. So parents use of day care can be planned using these stages.

Answer 3

They only looked at one sample which had a unique historical and cultural context. In collectivist cultures, multiple attachments from a very early age are more normal - Ijzendoorm.

Answer 4

A child's closest male caregiver.

Answer 5

Babie's attachment was studied until they were teens. looked at parents behaviour and it's relationship to the quality of their babies later attachments. Quality of attachment to mothers but not fathers was related to attachmets in adolescence. But he also found that the quality of fathers play with babies was related to quality of adolescent attachment. So fathers have a different role from mothers, more to do with play and simulation.

Answer 6

Forms the basis of all later close emotional relationships.

Answer 7

Filmed 4 month year old babies in face to face interactions with, primary caregiver mothers, secondary caregiver fathers and primary caregiver fathers. Primary caregiver fathers as well as mother spent more time smiling, imitating and holding babies than the secondary father caregivers. So teh father does have potential to the more emotion focused caregiver - provide the responsivness required for a close emotional attachment but maybe only express when given the role of a primary caregiver.

Answer 8

Lack of clarity over research questions being asked. The question What is the role of father? Could be concerned with fathers as either a primary or secondary attachment figure which both show fathers with different roles. primary caregivers show a more maternal role wheras secondary caregiver have a more distinct role. So hard to offer simple answer to the question as depends what specific role is being discussed.

Answer 9

Findings will vary according to the methodology used. Grossmann found out that fathers have a distinctive role in their child's development involving play and simulation. However if this was the case then we would expect children growing up in single mother and lesbian families to turn out different in some way. Studies by McCallum and Golombok show consistently that these children do not develop differently from children in heterosexual families. So the question to whether fathers have a distinct role remains unanswered.

Answer 10

Lines of research may not be in conflict. Could be that fathers typically take on a distinctive role in 2 parent heterosexual families, but that parents in single mother, lesbian parent families adapt to accommodate the role played by fathers. So the question of a distinct role for fathers is clear, when present, fathers adopt a distinctive role, but families can adapt to not having a father.

Answer 11

Can be used to offer advice to parents. parents sometimes agonise over who should be the primary caregiver and may worry about having children at all. Mothers may feel pressure to stay at home and fathers pressured to work. This may not be the economically best solution in some families. Research into the role of the father offers parents reasurrance, e,g heterosexual parents can be told that fathers are capeable to being primary attachment figures and lesbian parents can be told that not having a father around won't affect child development. So parental anxiety around the role of fathers is reduced.

Answer 12

He randomly divided a large clutch of goose eggs. half the eggs were hatched with their mother goose in their natural habitat, and the other half hatched in an incubator where the first moving object they saw was the Lorenz.

Answer 13

The incubator group followed Lorenz everywhere, where the control group who were hatched in the presence of the mother followed her. When the 2 groups were mixed the control group continued to follow the mother and the experimental group followed Lorenz.

Answer 14

Where bird species which are mobile from birth attach to and follow the first moving object they see. There is a critical period in which this needs to occur other they may not attch themselves to a mother figure.

Answer 15

When birds imprint on something, they will later on show courtship behaviour towards that species.

Answer 16

A peacock had been reared in the reptile house of a zoo. Giant tortoises were the first moving object it saw. As an adult this bird would only direct courtship behaviour towards giant tortoises.

Answer 17

Hard to generalise findings and conclusions from birds to humans. Mammalian attachment system is far more complex than in birds, e.g it is a 2 way process. So not appropriate to generalise Lorenz's ideas to humans.

Answer 18

Although human attachment is quite different from that in birds there have been some attempt to use the idea that some kind of imprinting occurs in humans. e.g Seebach said that humans exhibit baby duck syndrome towards their first computer operating system.

Answer 19

He tested the idea that a soft object serves some of the functions of a mother. he reared 16 baby monkeys with 2 wire model mothers. In one condition milk was dispensed by the plain wire mother and in another condition the milk was dispensed by the cloth covered mother.

Answer 20

The monkeys cuddled the cloth covered mother in preference to the plain wired mother and sought comfort from it when scared, regardless of which mother dispensed milk. Shows that contact comfort was more important to monkeys than food.

Answer 21

Monkeys reared with the plain mother were the most dysfunctional, however even the ones reared with the cloth covered mother did not develop normal social behaviour. They were more agressive and less sociable and they bred less as were less skilled at mating. When they became mothers, some neglected their young and even killed them.

Answer 22

Helped social workers and clinical psychologists understand that a lack of bonding experience may be a risk factor in child development allowing them to intervene to prevent poor outcomes -Howe. We also now understand the importance of attachment figures in baby monkeys in zoos . So the value of Harlow's research is not just theoretical but also practical.

Answer 23

Hard to generalise Harlow's findings and conclusions from monkeys to humans. Human brain and behaviour still much more complex than monkeys. So may not be appropriate to generalise Harlow's findings to humans.

Answer 24

Caused severe and long term distress to the monkeys. but the findings and conclusions have practical and theoretical applications.

Answer 25

Dollard and Miller

Answer 26

Children learn to love whoever feeds them.

Answer 27

Food is an unconditioned stimulus which provides the unconditioned response of pleasure. The caregiver is the neutral stimulus which provides no response. When the caregiver provides food overtime, they become associated with food. The unconditioned plus neutral stimulus provides the unconditioned response of pleasure, the caregiver then becomes the conditioned stimulus who produces the conditioned response of pleasure. This pleasure response is love, an attachment is formed.

Answer 28

Crying leads to a response from the caregiver, e.g feeding. This reinforces the crying. The baby then directs their crying for comfort at the caregiver who responds with comforting social supressor behaviour.

Answer 29

The caregiver receives negative reinforcement as when she comforts the baby, the crying stops - she is escaping from something unpleasent.

Answer 30

Hunger. An innate biological motivator. We are motivated to eat to reduce the hunger drive.

Answer 31

As caregivers provide food, the primary drive of hunger becomes generalised to them. So attachment is a secondary drive learned by an association between the caregiver and the satisfaction of a primary drive.

Answer 32

Lorenz's geese imprinted on the first moving object they saw regardless of whether they were associated with food. In Harlow's monkeys displayed attachment behaviour towards the soft mother in preference of which one provided milk. Shows that factors other than an association with food is important in forming attachment.

Answer 33

Schaffer and Emerson found that babies tended to form their main attachment to their mother regardless of whether she was the one who usually fed them. Isabella founf that high levels of interactional synchrony predicted good quality attachment, this is not related to feeding. Suggests that feeding is not the main factor in formation of human attachment.

Answer 34

Elements of conditioning could be involved in some aspects of attachment formation. Unlikely that association with food plays a central role in attachment, but conditioning may still play a role. e.g a baby may associate feeling warm and comfortable with a particular adult, which may influence the baby's choice of their main attachment figure. Learning theory may still be useful in development of attachments.

Answer 35

Both classical and operant conditioning explanations see the baby playing a relatively passive role in attachment development. But research shows that babies take on a very active role in the interactions that produce attachment - Feldman and Eidelmen. So conditioning may not be an adequate explanation of any aspect of attachment.

Answer 36

Hay and Vespo suggest that parents teach children to love them by demonstrating attachment behaviours e.g hugging. Also reinforce loving behaviour by showing approval when babies display their own attachment behaviours. Based around a 2 way interaction between baby and adult so supports research into importance of reciprocity.

Answer 37

An evolutionary explanation, attachment is an innate system that gives us a survival advantage. Mechanism to keep young animals safe by ensuring they stay close to a caregiver.

Answer 38

Placed emphasis on the child's attachment to one particular caregiver. The attachment to this caregiver was different and more important tham any other attachments and is of central importance to the childs devlopment. He called this person the mother.

Answer 39

The more constant and predictable a childs care, the bettwe quality of their attachment.

Answer 40

The effects of every separation from the mother add up and the safest does is therefore a 0 dose.

Answer 41

Innate cute behaviours, which encourgae attention from adults. They activate adult social interaction and make an adult attach to a baby.

Answer 42

6 months, but could extend up to 2 years.

Answer 43

Mental representation of their relationship with primary attachment figure. Serves as a model for what they expect all later relationships to be like. Affects the child later ability to be parents themselves. Patterns of attachment are passed form 1 generation to the next.

Answer 44

The concept of monotropy lacks validity. Schaffer and Emerson found that although most babies first formed an attachment to 1 person, a significant minority formed multiple attachments at the same time. Although although the first attachment does have an influence on later attachments, it may just mean it's stronger rather then different in quality. For example other attachments to family members provide all the key qualities. So Bowlby is incorrect in saying that there is a unique quality and importance to the child's primary attachment.

Answer 45

Clear evidence that cute baby behaviours are desigened to elicit a response from a caregiver. Brazelton observed babies trigger adult interactions with social releasers. The primary figures were then told to ignore the social releasers, the babies became distressed and some curled up and lay motionless. Illustrates the role of social releasers in emotional development and suggests they are important in the process of attachment development.

Answer 46

Predicts that patterns of attachment will be passed from 1 generation to the next. Bailey assessed attachment relationships in 99 mothers and their 1 year old babies. Measured mothers attachment to their own primary attachment figure and the attachment quality of their babies. Found that mothers with poor attachment to their own primary attachment figures were more likely to have poorly attachted babies. Supports Bowlby's idea that mother's ability to form attachment to their babies is influenced by their internal working models.

Answer 47

Also other important influences on social development. e.g genetic differences in anxiety and sociability in both babies and adults which affect social behaviour. These differences can also impact on parenting ability - Korienko. Bowlby may have overstated the importance of the internal working model in social behaviour and parenting at the expense of other factors.

Answer 48

The laws of continuity and accumulated separation suggest that mothers should not go to work as it will negatively affect their child's emotional development. Feminists like Burman point out that this belief sets up mothers to take the blame for any thing that goes wrong with the child in the future. It also gives people an excuse to restrict mothers activities like going to work.

Answer 49

Ainsworth and Bell

Answer 50

Observe key attachment behaviours to assess a baby's security of attachment to their caregiver.

Answer 51

A controlled observation

Answer 52

1. Proximity-seeking 2. Exploration and secure base behaviour 3. Stranger anxiety 4. Separation anxiety 5. Response to reunion

Answer 53

Caregiver and baby enter an unfamiliar playroom, and the baby is encouraged to explore. tests exploration and secure base.

Answer 54

Stranger comes in and talks to the caregiver and approaches the baby. Tests stranger anxiety.

Answer 55

Caregiver leaves the stranger and baby together. Tests separation and stranger anxiety.

Answer 56

Caregiver returns and stranger leaves. tests reunion response and secure base.

Answer 57

The caregiver leaves the baby alone. Tests separation anxiety.

Answer 58

Stranger returns. tests stranger anxiety.

Answer 59

Caregiver returns and is reunited with the baby. tests reunion response.

Answer 60

Secure attachment

Answer 61

- Happily explore but regularly returned to their caregiver. - Moderate separation anxiety and stranger anxiety - Require and accept comfort in reunion,

Answer 62

Insecure-avoidant

Answer 63

- Explore freely but do not seek proximity or show secure base behaviour. - Little or no reaction when caregiver leaves and little stranger anxiety. - Make little effort to make contact on reunion and may even avoid contact.

Answer 64

Insecure-resistant

Answer 65

- Seek greater proximity and explore less - High stranger and separation anxiety - resist comfort on reunion

Answer 66

It's outcome predicts a number of things about babies development. e.g type B babies tend to have better outcomes in child and adulthood e.g in bullying, school and mental health. Other babies tend to have worse outcomes. Shows that the strange situation measures something meaningful in a baby's development.

Answer 67

Does measure something associated with later development but may not be attachment. kagan says that genetically influenced anxiety levels could account for variations of attachment behaviour in the strange situation and later development. So the SS may not measure attachment.

Answer 68

Good inter-rater reliability. Bick tested inter-rater reliability for the strange situation for a team of trained observers and found agreement on attachment type in 94% of cases. Could be dued to observable behaviours and controlled observations. Can be confident that attachment type does not depend on subjective judgements.

Answer 69

May not be a valid measure of attachment across different cultures. Developed in Europe and the US so may be culture bound. Due to babies having different experiences in different cultures which may affect their response to the SS. e.g in a japanese study by Takahashi, babies displayed very high levels of separation anxiety so a disproportionate amoutn were resistant. But this is not due to high rates of insecure attachment but due to rare mother baby separation. Hard to know what the SS is measuring outside europe and us.

Answer 70

Main and Solomon identified a 4th category of attachment - type D (disorganised) a mix of resistant and avoidant. Type D babies have generally experienced some form of neglect or abuse and most will go on to develop psychological disorders by adulthood.

Answer 71

Located 32 studies of attachment where the strange situation was used to investigate proporations of babies with different attachment types.Conducted across 8 countries, 15 studies in the US. The study yielded results for 1,990 children. The data was meta analysed.

Answer 72

- In all countries, secure attachment was the most common. - Proportion of secure attachment varied from 75% in Britain to 50% in China - In individualist cultures, rates of resistant attachment were similar to Ainsworth's original sample (all under 14%) - For collectivist countries, rates were above 25% and rates of avoidant were lower. - variation within the results of studies within the same country were 150% greater than variation between countries. e.g in the US, one study founf only 46% secure but another sample was 90%

Answer 73

Assess 76 babies aged 12 months using the strange situation. 50% secure, 36% avoidant . lower rate of secure and high rate of avoidant than found in other studies. Could be due to increase in mothers working long hours and use of professional childcare. Suggest that patterns of attachment are not static and vary in line with cultural change.

Answer 74

Strange situation was used to assess 87 babies. Proportions of secure and insecure babies were similar to most countries with most babies being secure. But most who were insecure were resistant and only 1 was avoidant. Similar to distribution of attachment type found in Japan due to similar child rearing style.

Answer 75

Secure attachment seems to be the norm suggesting attachment is innate and universal. However,cultural practises have influence on attachment type.

Answer 76

Most studies were conducted by indigenous researchers. So many of the potential issues in cross cultural research can be avoided such as language barriers and bias due to stereotypes. As they could communicate successfully, this enhanced the validity of the data.

Answer 77

Not all cross cultural research was done by indegenous people. e.g Morelli and Tronick were American and they studied child rearing and patterns of attachment in Efe of Zaire. Data may have been affected by difficulties gathering data from participants outside their culture. So data from some countries may have been affected by bias and difficulty communicating.

Answer 78

Impact of confounding variables on the findings. studies arent matched for methodology when combined in a meta analysis. Sample characteristics like poverty, age, social class etc can confound results. Environmental variables may also confound results e.g amount of interesting toys and size of room. Less visible proximity seeking due to room size may make a child seem more avoidant. So looking at attachment behaviour in different non matched studies in different countries may not tell us anything about cross cultural attachment.

Answer 79

Trying to impose a test designed for one cultural context to another. Cross cultural psychology includes the idea of emic (Cultural uniqueness) and etic (Cross cultural universitality) Imposed etic occurs when we assume that an idea or technique that occurs in 1 cultural context will work in another. e,g in the strange situation when measuring reunion response, in UK and US lack of affection may indicate avoidant attachment but in germany it would be more likely to be seen as independence. So that part of the SS may not work in Germany. So the behaviours measured in the SS may not have the same meanings across cultures so meaningless to compare.

Answer 80

Research has found very similar attachment types across cultures, as explained by Bowlby's theory that attachment is innate and universal. However Izendoorn and Kroonenberg suggest an alternative explanation, that global media represents a particualr view of how parents and babies are meant to behave, which may override traditional cultural differences in how children are bought up.

Answer 81

Emotional and intellecutal consequences of separation between infant and mother. Continuous care is essential for normal psychological development and prolonged separation causes severe damage to emotional and intellectual development.

Answer 82

Is as important for mental health as vitamins and proteins are for pysical health.

Answer 83

Separation means the child not being in a presence of a primary attachment figure. This only leaves to deprivation when the child loses emotional care.

Answer 84

first 2 and 1/2 years of life. But can extend up to 5 years. if a child is separated from their primary caregiver without a substitute caregiver then psychological damge is inevitable.

Answer 85

- if a child is deprived of emotional care for too long during the critical period, they will experience delayed intellectual development. - Characterised by a low IQ - Goldfarb's study, he found that children who had been in instiutions as opposed to those who had been fostered had a lower IQ as they were deprived of emotional care.

Answer 86

- Bowlby identiified affectionless psychopathy is the inability to experience guilt or strong emotion towards others. - Prevents a person developing fulfilling relationships and is associated with criminality. cant appreciate the feelings of victims and feel no remorse.

Answer 87

Examine the link between affectionless psychopathy and maternal deprivation.

Answer 88

44 criminal teens accused of stealing. Interviewed for signs of affectionless psychopathy. Families were interviewed to establish whether the theives has prolonged early separations from thier mothers. Compared to a control group of 44 teens who were not criminals but emotionally disturbed.

Answer 89

14/44 theives could be described as affectionless psychopaths and 12 of these had experienced prolonged separation in the first 2 years of their lives. Only 5 of the remaining 30 theives had experienced separation. Only 2 particiapnts in the control group had experienced long separations.

Answer 90

it is based on poor quality evidence. Bowlby carried out the test of AP and the family interviews, leaving him open to bias as he knew which teens he would expect to show signs of AP. Other sources of evidence were flawed e.g Bowlby was influenced by Goldfarb's findings on the development of deprived children in orphanages. This study has issues with confounding variables as these children had experienced trauma as well as prolonged separation. So Bowlby's sources of evidence for maternal deprivation had serious flaws and would not be taken seriouly now.

Answer 91

A line of research has provided some support for the idea that maternal deprivation can have long term affects. Levy showed that separating baby rats from their mother for as little as a day had a permanent effect on their social development though not other aspects of development. So even though Bowlby relied on flawed evidence to support this theory, there is other sources of evidence for his ideas.

Answer 92

Confusion between different types of early experience. Rutter drew an important distinction between 2 types of early negative experience. Deprivation is the loss of the primary attachment figure after an attachment has formed. Privation is the failure to form an attachment in the first place-common in institutional care. The severe long term damage Bowlby associated with deprivation is more likely to be associated with privation. Goldfarb's children and the 44 theives may have been prived rather than deprived. Bowlby may have overestimated the seriousness of the affects of deprivation in childhood development.

Answer 93

false idea of a critical period. Evidence suggests that in many cases, good quality aftercare can prevent psychological damage. Koluchova reported the case of the Czech twins who experienced emotional and physical abuse from 18 months until they were 7. They then recieved excellent care and were fully recovered by the time they were twins. So the lasting harm is not inevitable even in cases of severe privation. so it is more of a senstive period.

Answer 94

Attempts to replicate the 44 theives study failed to produce similar results. Lewis looked at 500 young people and found no assocaition between later psychopathy and early separation. Although more recent research e.g by Gao, has partially supported Bowlby by saying that poor quality maternal care is associated with psychopathy in adults.

Answer 95

- Followed a group of 165 romanian orphans for many years as part of the English Romanian adoptee (ERA) study. Orphans had been adopted by families in the UK. - Aim of the ERA was to investiagte whether good care could make up for poor early experiences in instiution. - Physical, cognitive and emotional development has been measured at ages 4,6,11,15 and 22-25 years. - Group of 52 children from the UK adopted around the same time were the control.

Answer 96

- upon first arrival, half the adoptees showed signs of poor intellectual development and most were severely undernourished. - At age 11, they showed differential rates of recovery related to age of adoption. - Mean IQ for adopted before 6 months was 102 compared to 86 for thise adopted between 6 months and 2 years, and 77 for after 2 years. - Beckett said these differences remained at age 16 and Kennedy said that ADHD was more common in 15 and 22-25 samples. - Adopted after 6 months showed signs of disinhibited attachment.

Answer 97

- Attention seeking - Clinginess - and social behaviour directed indisriminatly towards all adults.

Answer 98

- Bucharest early intervention project (BEI) - Assess attachment in 95 Romanian children age 12-31 months who had spent at least 90% of their lives in institutional care. - Compared to control of 50 children who had never lived in an institution. - Attachment type was measured using the strange situation - carers were also asked about signs of unusal social behaviour.

Answer 99

- 74% of contro, were securely attached - Only 19% of instiutional group were securely attached. - description of Disinhibited attachment applied too 44% of instiutional children but less than 20% of controls.

Answer 100

Leads to disinhibited attachment. Rutter explained it as an adaptation to living with multiple caregivers during the senstitive period for attachment formation. Might have 50 carers but doesnt spend anough time with any of them to form a secure attachment.

Answer 101

Most children showed signs of poor intellectual development when arriving in the UK. But those adopted before 6 months were able to catch up with control by age 4.

Answer 102

Improve conditions for children growing up outside their family home. Studying Romanian orphans has led to improvemnts in the conditions of conditons in care systems. e.g avoiding having large numebrs of caregivers for each child and have just 1 or 2 key people who play a central role in emotional care. More fostering and adoption rather than orphanages. So children living in institutional care have a chance to develop normally .

Answer 103

Fewer negative experiences before instituionalisation as had been handed over by loving parents who couldnt afford to keep them. Orphans in other studies had varying degrees of trauma so was hard to know what was affecting them, the instiutional care or the trauma. High internal validity as results less likely to be confounded by other experiences.

Answer 104

Studying romanian orphans may have introduced different confounding variables. The quality of care in the orphanages was very poor and children recieved little intellectual stimulation or comfort. Effects could be the result of poor institutional care rather than just the care.

Answer 105

Current lack of data on adult development. Latest data from the ERA is from their mid 20's so doesnt tell us about mental health problems, and romantic and parental relationships. It will take a long time to gather this data due to the longitudinal data of the study. May be some time until we know what the long term effects are for the orphans . (Lack of adult data)

Answer 106

Show that late adopted children have poor developmental outcomes. So their parents and teachers may have lowed their expectations on what they can acheive and treated them differently. Created a self fulfilling prophecy.

Answer 107

Have functional relationships and behave functionally within them. Not being too emotionally close or uninvoled (Avoidnat) or controlling ans argumentative (resistant)

Answer 108

Struggle to form relationships or may not behave appropriately in them.

Answer 109

Securely attached babies tend to form the best quality friendships where as insecurely attached babies later have friendship difficulties.

Answer 110

Assessed attachment type and bullying involvement using a questionnaire in 196 aged 7-11 from London. Secure children were unlikely to be involved in bullying, avoidant most likely to be victims and resistant most likely to be bullys.

Answer 111

- Analysed 620 replies to a love quiz in a newspaper. - 3 sections: assessed current or most important relationship,general love experiences and attachment type.

Answer 112

- 56% identified as secure - 25% avoidant - 19% resistant Those reporting secure attachments were more likely to have good and longer lasting romantic experiences. Avoidants experienced jelously and fear of intimacy.

Answer 113

- 40 adult women - Assessed at birth for their early attachment type. - Securely attached had better friendships and relationships - Resistant had problems maintaining friendships - Avoidant had fear of intimacy.

Answer 114

People tend to base their parenting style on their internal working model so attachment type tends to be passed on down generations. Baileys study.

Answer 115

Parents tend to base their parenting style on their internal working model, so attachment type tends to get passed down generations in a family.

Answer 116

Reviews of evidence linking attachment and later relationships conclude that early attachment does consistently predict later attachment, emotional well being and attachment to children. How strong the relationship is between early attachment type and later development depends on both the attachment type and aspect of later development. e,.g avoidant attachment seems to have mild negative disadvanatges, disorganised attachment is strongly associated with later mental disorder. This means that secure attachment as a baby appears to convey advantages for future development why type D seems to have serious disadvantages.

Answer 117

Not all evidence supports the link between early attachment and later development. e.g the Regensburg longitudinal study followed 43 individuals from 1 year old. At age 16 attachment was assessed using adult attachment interview and there was no evidence of continuity. Not clear to what extent the quality of early attachment really predicts later development, may be other important factors.

Answer 118

Early attachment is measured retrospectively. asked questions about their relationships and identify attachment type from this. Creates 2 validity issues: relies on honesty and accuracy of person. Hard to know whether what is being assessed is early attachment or adult attachment.Measures of early attachment may be confounded with other factors making them meaningless.

Answer 119

Some studies do assess attachment in infancy which means that the assessment of early attachment is valid. However even these studies may have problems with confounding variables so have validity problems. e.g parenting style may influence both attachment quality and later development and also individual personality differences. So canr be sure whether its attachment type or other factors affecting later development.

Topic 3: Attachment Flashcards

(153 cards)