Topic 8: Migration, Identity and Sovereignty Flashcards
1
Q
What are the two processes affecting the demand for labour?
A
- national scale: people move from traditional rural economies to work in cities, which have become hubs of industrial activity.
- international scale: there is easier movement of people; the EU allows free movement, whereas elsewhere most countries readily offer work visas to those with skills and a sponsor.
2
Q
What are the two main flows of migration within China?
A
- one flow is of rural migrants within the rural interior - usually to a small city.
- second flow of migrants is from smaller cities to the major east cities and industrial areas (due to SEZs). E.g. the Pearl River Delta, Guangzhou, Beijing and Shanghai.
3
Q
Statistics about rural-urban migration in China:
A
- in 1980, over 80% of Chinese people lived in rural areas; by 2012 over 680 million people (51% of the population).
- by 2025 it was been predicted that a further 350 million people will have moved to China’s cities.
4
Q
What is the hukou system?
A
- introduced by new communist government in 1950s and were designed to keep people in rural areas.
- everyone is registered at an official residence. Those moving to cities much be ‘registered’ and buy a permit, which is expensive.
5
Q
What are the criticisms of the hukou system?
A
- permits are usually given to highly-educated workers, or those who have family already legally resident in the city.
- without a permit workers earn less and their families have no entitlement to schooling or healthcare.
- the hukou system has become too restrictive as it acts as a barrier to urban integration for many Chinese.
6
Q
What is the Schengen Agreement?
A
- signed in Schengen, Luxembourg and took effect in 1995.
- abolished many of the internal border controls within the EU.
- enabled passport-free movement across EU member states.
- The UK decided to remain outside the area even before leaving the EU.
7
Q
Which countries are involved within the Schengen Agreement?
A
- 26 countries
- 22 EU member states, e.g. France, Germany, Spain, etc
- 4 non EU members (Switzerland, Iceland, Norway and Liechtenstein)
8
Q
How has the Schengen Agreement been helpful?
A
- Since 1995 millions of EU citizens have moved freely across the area. This has helped to fill job vacancies in other EU countries.
- over 14 million people now live in another member state.
9
Q
Why has the agreement been criticised by many?
A
- many claim that it gives easy access to cheap labour
- allows free movement to criminals and terrorists. E.g. terrorist attacks such as Paris 2015 has prompted a rethink about free movement.
- 2016: Germany, Austria, France, Sweden, Denmark and Norway reintroduced internal border controls.
10
Q
International migration definition:
A
- the movement across national boundaries
11
Q
Japan’s immigration policy:
A
- Japan’s population is falling, and 27% are over the age of 65.
- population is predicted to fall by 44 million by 2037.
- the UN suggests that Japan needs 17 million migrants by 2050 to maintain its population at 2007 levels.
- Japan are very closed off to immigration. However part of the problem is language. Unlike English, Japanese isn’t a global language.
- despite concerns about its ageing population there is little evidence of change in the political mindset.
12
Q
Australia’s immigration policy:
A
- Australia’s immigration policy had been skills based. 70% of immigrants are accepted based on skills shortages where there are insufficient Australian workers (e.g. medicine or engineering).
- Australia’s immigrants contribute 10% more per capita to GDP than non-immigrants.
- 88% are under 40 and 50% are aged 20-34 (compared to 20% of Australians).
- migrants offset the numbers due to retire, which would otherwise place increasing pressure on costs of medical and social care.
13
Q
What are the different categories of those migrating:
A
- voluntary economic migrants
- refugees
- asylum seekers
14
Q
What are the source countries for international migrants to the UK
A
- Commonwealth countries, i.e. India, Pakistan and the West Indies.
15
Q
UK migration from commonwealth countries:
A
- 1945: labour shortages in factories, transport and the NHS led the government to advertised UK jobs overseas.
- Afro-Caribbean migrants arrived from the West Indies from 1948, followed by those from India and Pakistan.
16
Q
UK migration from the EU:
A
- EU migration grew after the Maastricht Agreement in 1992.
- EU second largest economy - with the world’s foremost business language migration to the UK has been high and helped fill labour shortages.
- most immigrants are aged between 21-35 and consist of both skilled and unskilled workers in equal numbers.
- although questions now exist after Brexit.
17
Q
Migration in Europe examples:
A
- 2014-2017 saw huge increases in immigration from North Africa and the Middle East, especially Syria.
- for example, 1.3 million migrants arrived in Germany in 2015-2016 as a result of its temporary open-door policy.
18
Q
Migration to the Middle East:
A
- many labourers from India, Pakistan and Bangladesh moved to Qatar temporarily to help build infrastructure for the World Cup as well as to Dubai to support its rapid modernisation and urban expansion.
19
Q
Global migration:
A
- natural hazards have also forced people to move.
- e.g. Haiti’s 2010 EQ displaced 300,000 Haitians, while Hurricane Matthew (2016) displaced a further 55,000.
20
Q
Why do people migrate to other countries?
A
- work and job opportunities
- escaping conflict
- family members
21
Q
Crossing the Mediterranean:
A
- in 2015, just over 1 million migrants left North Africa and the Middle East for Europe.
- a further 340,000 arrived in 2016.
- they were often fleeing persecution or conflict or seeking better job opportunities.
- most arrived in boats run by people smugglers.
- conditions and experiences encountered were dreadful and many didn’t make it to their final destination due to overloaded boats sinking.
22
Q
EU migration to the UK:
A
- many come either work or study.
- 2.5 million EU nationals became resident in the UK.
- 250,000 french people lived in London in 2015.
- migrants have helped to fill gaps in the UK labour market by working in construction, business and management, hospitality etc.
- 2016: a further 270,000 EU citizens settled in the UK, whilst 90,000 left - a record net gain of 180,000.
23
Q
Voluntary economic migrants:
A
- those moving for work
24
Q
Refugees:
A
- forced to leave their country because of war, natural disaster, persecution
25
Asylum seekers:
- fleeing to another country to apply for the right to international protection.
26
What is the theory of globalisation?
-
27
What does theory of globalisation involve?
28
National identity:
- national idendity refers to common experiences, beliefs or values, but these are not set in stone.
- they may vary over time, in intensity or by age group.
- migration also affects identity, as different cultures enter a country, bringing different foods, customs and beliefs.
29
Sovereignty:
- defintions include 'supreme power or authority'.
- ...
30
Open borders and immigration:
- immigration is controversial and can cause resentment with host populations, who may sense threats to their national identities.
- some migrants become victims of harassment, abuse, violence and exploitationm or the subject of hostility in the tabloid press.
31
examples of tensions that have risen with the EU and its neighbouring:
- extreme political parties are now becoming increasingly significant in Europe (e.g. Golden Dawn in Greece and France's National Front).
- since 2014, huge numbers of Syrian refugees and economic migrants have created tensions between Greece, other Balkan countries and Turkey.
32
Internal movements within the UK:
- about 10% of people in the UK move - some move locally while others move between regions.
- the regional movement of people is unrestricted and is often linked to the changing labour market.
33
What are reasons for internal migration?
- since the 1980s, de-industrialisation in northern Britain has driven many workers south in search of employment. The growth of footloose industries in the South East has encouraged this as has the growth of London’s knowledge economy.
- the regeneration of large cities (e.g. Manchester and London) had led to in-migration of younger people for work, as well as the urban lifestyle. Many families move from cities into rural areas.
34
What are the social consequences of migration?
- high inward migration can lead to rising house prices, if housing supply fails to meet demand, together with overcrowded schools, strained healthcare provision and falling local wages.
- large out-migrations from source regions can leave those areas with skills shortages and an ageing population.
35
Labour flows - Mexico ans USA:
- poverty and violence in Mexico and Central America have motivated millions of people to head (both legally and illegally) for the USA.
- political upheaval and religious repression in Myanmar is causing people to leave the country, particularly those from the Muslim minority.
36
assimilation definition:
- the gradual integration of an immigrant group into the lifestyle and culture of the host country, sometimes at the expense of their own distinctiveness. This happens over time as migrants become more mobile, have mixed marriages, and adjust to the host nation's way of life.
37
ethnic definition:
- a social group identified by a distinctive culture, religion, language or similar.
38
culture definition:
- the ideas, beliefs, customs and social behaviour of a group or society.
39
ethnic segregation definition:
- the voluntary or enforced separation of people of different cultures or nationalities.
40
apartheid defintion:
- the enforced segregation of people by skin colour or ethnicity. The policy was used in South Africa between 1948 and 1991.
41
Assimilation in South Africa:
- nearly three decades of equal rights since the abolition of the apartheid have hardly altered its ethnic segregation; residental areas im both urban and rural locations usually remain differentitated by ethnicity and skin colour.
42
Assimilation in western countries:
- ethnic groups mau still be segregated by residence, e.g. the different segregation of ethnic groups in London, such as those of Indian descent.
- however, unlike SA, this ethnic segregation usually comes from economic and cultural factors.
43
Why does London have enclaves of different ethnic groups?
- cheaper rental properties in inner cities have traditionally attracted migrants to settle close to their workplace. Over time ethnic enclaves have become permanent, e.g. Southall - Hindu and Sikh communties. Southall is equidistant between jobs in Central London and at Heathrow Airport and good job opportunities have meant that these communtiies are able to thrive and buy homes and businesses.
- many West Indian immigrants (1950s) were recruited to drive London's buses,. Therefore many settled and their descendents live in the same area.
44
Nation state definition:
- a nation or sovereign state is when the population is united by factors such as language, a common ethnic and cultural backgrounf wihich bring a sense of national identity.
- nation states change and vary over time, and vary with geographical location, historical events and population migrants.
45
Ethnicity in Iceland:
- 95% are Icelandic and 5% are of foreign origin.
- extreme climate - some may not want to move. Average temperature in winter is 2 degrees.
- strong identity and culture.
- also a lack of pull factors: e.g. job opportunities and a remote location.
- those moving to Iceland are expected to learn the language which is deemed as very difficult.
46
Iceland - ethnicity and history:
- formed around 20 million years ago and sits in the mid-Atlantic ocean.
- gained independence from Denmark in 1944 and its laws and society fiercely protect its cultural heritage and national identity.
- most are descendents of Norwegian settlers.
47
Iceland - culture, language and food, etc:
- all children's names must come from an approved list - to reserve the language of Icelandic sagas.
- Icelandic language hasd remained unchanged since 870 AD. Although other Nordic languages and english are spoken too.
- 74% of Icelanders belong to the Evnagelical Lutheran church.
48
Iceland - demographics:
- population of 372,000 (2021). 23% were of forgeign background.
- life expectancy is 83.64 years. 81.41 for males and 85.97 for females.
-
49
Singapore's history:
- part of the British Empire for 144 years
- on 16th September 1963 Singapore became part of Malaysia before being exiled. Unproductive and high crime rates.
- migration from China - view themselves as 'Singaporean'. They believe that mainland China are rude and those living in Singapore deel as though they are outsiders.
- first language is english and second langauge is Mandarin.
50
Singapore - ethnicity and history:
- first established in 1819 by Raffles.
- divided into four distinct areas:
1) European Town - for Europeans and wealthy Asians.
2) Chinatown - for the chinese ,ajority
3) Chulia Kampon - for Indian Hindus and Sikhs.
4) Kampong Glam - for Muslim Malays and Arabs
51
Singapore - culture, language and food etc.
- vibrant mix of languages, culture, religous festivals and food.
- languages spoken within thr country include English, Mandarin, Malay and Tamil.
52
Singapore - demographics:
- population of 5.4 million (2021)
- 74% are Chinese, 9% Indian, 13% are Malay and others have European descent or are working overseas.
- 4 million are residents and the others are either foreign students or working.
- life expectancy is 83.5 years. 81.1 for males and 85.9 for females.
53
What are national borders?
- borders separate nations and are either natural, have emerged historically over time or are the result of colonial history or political intervention.
54
What are natural borders?
- these consist of physical features that once created natural obstacles, such as rivers (e.g. the Niagara between Canada and the USA), lakes (e.g. the border created by Lake Tanganyika between the DRC, Zambia, Tanzania and Burundi) or mountains (e.g. the Pyrenees betwee France and Spain).
55
What are colonial history and political intervention borders?
- e.g. 14 countries met at a conference in Berlin 1884-5 to discuss and divide up the continent of Africa.
- at the time 80% of the continent was under indigenous control however by the end of the conference the continent had been divided into 50 different countries along geometric boundaries and turned into colonies by major European countries.
- the new country borders were superimposed onto existing indigenous regions of Africa with no account of tribal o linguistic boundaries.
- African population had no say in the partitioning of their homeland or turning them into European colonies.
56
Conflict in Rwanda:
57
Examples of contested borders:
- Ukraine and Crimea
- Taiwan
58
Conflict in Ukraine and Crimea:
- Crimea became part of the Russian Empire in 1783.
- the Germans occupied it for part of the Second World War. In 1944 it becamme recaptured by the Russians, Stalin exiled the entire population of Crimean Tatars to uzbekistan.
- Crimea remained part of Russia until 1954 when it was transferred to Ukraine.
- the break up of the USSR in 1991 created an opportunitity for the exild Crimean Tatars, who began returning.
- Sevastopol has long been the base of the Russain Black Sea fleet. After 1991 Russai found otself with part of its navy in newly independent Ukraine. In 2010 Ukraine agreed to extend Russia's lease on Sevastopol until 2042.
- however in 2014 russian-backed forces seized contorl of Crimea, and its Russain-speaking majority voted to join Russia in a referdum that Ukraine and the west to be considere illegal. 850,000 Ukrainians fled Crimea as a result.
59
Conflict in Taiwan:
- effectively been an independent state since 1950, but China still claims sovereignty over it and regards it as a rebel province that should be reunited with the mainland.
- China insists that nations should not have official formla relations with both China and Taiwan and therefore Taiwan has fewer formal ties with other countries.
- Although Taiwan is one of Asia's economic success stories and is a top producer of computer technology.
- she recognises the importance of Taiwanses identity, but by pursuing its sovereignty and formal independence she risks antagonising China.
60
Nationalim definition:
- a patriotic feeling of pride and loyalty to a nation.
61
Timeline - the emegence of Europe's nation states:
- pre 1500s: people lived in small communities and rarely travelled anywhere - their community was their world.
- 1485: the ending of the Wars of the Roses at the Battle of Bosworth led to the Tudor dynasty and the emerging idea of an emerging idea of an English nation state.
- 1492: Spain began to emerge as a global power after Ferdinand and Isabella captured the whole country from the Muslim Moors and began supporting explorers like Colombus.
- 1547-1584: Ivan the Terrible, the Russian Tsar, unified local provincial governments and created the first Russian nation state.
- 1638-1715: France emerged as a dominant European power during the absolute monarchy of Louis XVI.
- 1648: the Peace of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years War, made the legal status of the nation state sovereign over other powers.
- 1789: the French Revolution led to the modern French nation state. The French monarchy was replaced by a republican government, which led to the growth of nationalist ideas across much of Europe.
- 1871: the unification of many small independent states resulted in the formation of the modern countries of Germany and Italy for the first time.
- 1919: the Treaty of Versailles, which ended the First World War, led to the breakup of the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires and created many new nation states.
- 1945: the United Nations was formed from the pre-war League of Nations.
- 1957: the formation of the European Economic Community (the start of the EU) brought six European nations closer together economically.
- 1993 onwards: the creation of the European Union, and its later expansion to 28 countries, brought closer political ties and a single market, which allowed the free movement of goods, capital and people between member states.
62
The emergence of Europe's nation states:
- by the end of the 19th century, most of the European states that we know today had emerged in one form or another.
- however closer economic and political ties were created in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. This has increasingly diluted the importance of national borders.
- for example, 2017 EU member states share poltical, legal and economic ties, and their populations can move freely between them. Therefore many now believe themselves to be European first and national identity second.
63
Nineteenth century nationlism - France:
- the French Revolution helped to establish nationalism as a force. it removed the absolute power of the French monarchy and instead placed power in the hands of ordinary citizens.
- a new national government made laws that applied to everyone equally, and a standardised form of French was taught across the whole country to replace local dialects.
- loyalty towards France as a nation grew and a nationa identity emerged.
64
Growing tensions across Europe - France:
- many saw French nationlism as a threat with Napoleon being a key national figure. Made himself Emperor of France to extend French control across Europe.
- However, his belief in expansionism also provoked anger across Europe and led to rising nationalism in countries like Austria and Russia, who sought revenge for French aggression.
65
Growing tensions across Europe - Prussia:
- in 1800, Prussia was the most powerful German state.
- Prussia's economy was strong, based on iron ore and coal, and it traded with other north German states.
- growing German industrial wealth and infrastructure encouraged a growing sense of being 'German' with the result that a new combined state was created under the Prussian chancellor's national plan.
- Prussian rivalries with France that had led to the successful Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71.
- Prussia and its German allies took land from France which reduced French influence in Europe and led to the northern and southern German states joining a united Grermany under Prussian leadership.
66
....
67
Empires and their consequences:
- nationalism also grew beyond Europe in the 19th and early 20th centuries.
- imperialism and colonialism led to most major European nations.
- local resistance to this colonialisation began to build up and, for example, by 1900 most of Central and South America had won independence from Spain and Portugal. However, most of Africa and Asia was still controlled by various European nations.
68
'The jewel in the crown':
- India became the 'jewel in the crown' of the British Empire; colonisation led to direct British rule over the area which became known as the Raj.
- Britain became the global superpower - overtaking France and Spain - further creating international rivalries.
- Indian soldiers supported Britain in WW1 in return for self-governance. However the Indian people also had ideas of nationalism and wanted independence from Britain.
- The Sepoy Revolt in 1857 was an unsuccessful bid but India gained independence in 1946.
69
Post 1945 - independence and the wind of change:
- India was evenualyl offered complete independence in 1946.
- 1947: to prevent religious conflcit it was agreed that the fomrer territory of British India would be partitioned to create new states of Muslim-majority East and West Paksitan (the east became Bangladesh) and Hindu-majority India.
- colonial rulers of sub-Saharan Africa gradually gave up political control to new independent governments.
- Harold Macmillan it was clear that new states were about to emerge.
70
How did the empires fall quickly after 1945:
- many young Europeans saw colonial rule as negative and an unjust thing.
- after the world wars the UK was essentially bankrupt.
- European nations had older populations whereas colonial powers had younger populations - keeping control was more difficult than before.
- Europe's major economies had moved away from secondary industires meaning the demand for raw materials was less than before.
- there was resistance to colonial rule from the colonised peoples.
71
Who resisted the colonial rule?
- Ghandi: led the Indian campaign for independence.
- Mau Mau rebellion in Kenya sparked the 1960s African 'wind of change'
72
What were the problems created by empires falling quickly:
- colonised countries were left without real governance.
this left a space for groups to vie for power, setting up the conditions for future conflicts
- there were crippling skills shortages meanign development was challenging.
73
The costs of disintegrating empires examples:
- Vietnam - north and south
- South Sudan - a new African country
- Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)
74
Vietnam - social costs:
- long devastating war ensued during which the north Vietnamee nationalists fought to reunify the country. 1-4 million Vietnamese were killed. 240,00 - 300,000 Cambodians and 20,000 - 62,000 Laotians died.
- French Indonchina: the landless classesworked on the plantations and often lacked food, healthcare and education. The poor became poorer and hungrier.
- 58,000 USA military personnel were killed and 150,000 were injured.
75
Vietnam - economic costs:
- USA: economic cost has been put at $950 billion.
- USA also paid high political cost
- USA failed to push back the infiltration of the south by the Viet Kong brought into question its superiority. It appeared unable to push back the spread of communism
76
Vietnam - environmental costs:
- much of southeast Asia's agricultural land was converted to plantations producing rubber, coffee, tea, rice, and tabacco to export to the colonial powers.
77
South Sudan - social costs:
- food supplies were cut off and the World Food Programme and other UN agencies declared a major famine affecting over 1 million people.
- independence has not brought peace; conflicts between the country's 60 major ethnic groups has led to civil war that erupted in 2013, displacing 2.2 million people.
- the north of the country prsopered more than the south-'different country' left people feeling marginalised.
- 10s of thousands were forced to leave their homes.
78
South Sudan - economic costs:
- food supplies were cut off and the World Food Programme and other UN agencies declared a major famine affecting over 1 million people.
79
South Sudan - enviromental costs:
- four years of civil war has taken its toll on South Sudan and the environment.
80
Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) - social costs:
- one of the world's lowest HDI scores (176th).
- life expenctancy is 49.
- majority of deaths among young people are due to infectious diseases amd malnutrition linked with the loss of health services and food security due to conflict.
- aid and loans desinged to help alleviate poverty in DRC were siphoned off by Mobutu's family while leaving ordinary people in great debt.
- traumatised civilians have yet to be rehabilitated.
81
Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) - economic costs:
- in 2016 DRC's GDP per capita was just $435 per year despite its rich resources.
- political mismanagment and conflict squandered the country's early development opportunities.
82
Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) - environmental costs:
- conflcit in the 1990s led to widespread abandomnemyn of farmland and the re-growth of secondary forest.
- simultaneously, loss of vegetation occured in and around the massive refugee camps where poor sanitation has allowed diseases (e.g. cholera) to thrive.
83
post-colonialism - migration and colonial ties:
- many migrants come to the UK from Jamaica, Bangladesh, Uganda, Pakistan and India.
- Empire windrush - brought Jamaican economic migrants who filled post war job gaps.
- there were no restrictions on migration from the commonwealth for a long time.
- patterns of migration between former colonies and the European powers can be seen as a type of core and periphery migration.
84
post-colonialism - chnaging ethnic composition and cultural heterogeneity:
- many populations of ex-colonies got along with the British way of life.
- many workers come to do jobs such as mill working, or to work in the NHS as medical schols in former colonies were closely aligned with the British medical system.
- it was common for them to also speak fluenct English, meaning it was easier to settle into life in the UK.
85
post-colonialism - colonial legacies
- British, French, Portuguese and German place names, architecture and customs still survive in many African countries and the former colonised langauges often remain as legacies of thise times.
- e.g. in Uganda, there are over 40 ethnic groups although English remains the national language, which helps with Ugandan trade and development.
86
post-colonialism - a very modern world:
- internet exists as the most recent example of neo-colonialism. It pentrates wherevee there are appropriate connections.
- English is the most dominant Internt language, and also shows how disconnected Africa remains with the continent almost completely in darkness.
87
Timeline of Sudan's tensions
- 1946: plans are proposed for a united Sudan
- 1955: civil war breaks out, based on internal mistrust and tensions
- 1956: Sudan becomes independent from Britain and Egypt.
- 1956-1972: civil wars
- 1983 and 2005: civil wars
- 2005: a political agreement allows South Sudan to form an independent state
- 2011: Africa's newest country is established, but the presence of 60 different ethnic groups make central government control difficult
- 2013-2017: civil war again, wih over 2 million people displaced by the conflict.
- 2017: famine declared, affecting over 1 million people in South Sudan.
88
What is the UN?
- formed in October 1945, and became the world's first Inter-Governmental Organisation (IGO) with 50 members.
- The UK, USA, Russia, China and France became the five permanent members of its Security Council.
89
What is the role of the UN?
- maintaining international peace and security
- protecting human rights
- upholding international law
- delivering humanitarian aid
- promoting sustainable development
90
Examples of sanctions:
- arms embargos: banning weapons and military supplies
- trade embargos: banning specific imported items or purchase of exports
- restrictions on loans for development purposes
- freezing assets (e.g. bank accounts)
- travel restrictions for specific people, e.g. politicians or business people.
91
UN intervention in Iran:
- suspicion that Iran was attempting to build nuclear weapons led to the imposition of economic sanctions and financial restrictions by the UN.
- at the time, Iran was the world's fourth largest oil-exporting country, and influenced global prices through OPEC
-despite the UN being willing to act, Iran's annual GDP fell by just 5%.
92
UN intervention - Bosnia:
- Bosnia: former part of Yugoslavia
- 1993 UN was provoked into action following allegations of ethnic cleansing by Bosnian Serb forces against Bosnian Muslims.
- UN designated a safe zone in Srebrenica to protect Bosnian Muslims.
- however the town soon came under siege from Bosnian Serb forces. Supplies of food ran low and many Muslims died of starvation.
- 1995: Bosnia Serb forces captured Srebrenica, massacring 8000 Muslim boys and men, and deporting 23000 women and children
93
Taking unilateral acrion - USA:
- sometimes UN members take part in unilateral action, where one country, or group of countries, acts against another without formal UN approval.
- This can have deep impacts on geopolitical relations and global stability.
- e.g. a coalition of forces led by the USA, and including the UK, Australia and Poland, invaded Iraq in 2003 and deposed the government.
- UN initially supported the invasion however changed its mind.
94
Proposed unilateral acion - UK:
- 2013: UK government sought a resolution of UN Security Council o condemn the use of nuclear weapons by Syrian govt forces.
- China and Russia have historically vetoed action against Syria, and vote was unlikely to pass.
- however UK argued that it has a legal base for humanitarian intervention to relieve the suffering by deterring further use of chemical weapons.
- UK Parliament voted against intervention in Syria
95
Unilateral action agaisnt Russia:
- 2014: Russian-backed forces seized control of Crimea. In response to thus, the EU, USA, Australia, Canada and Norway imposed sanctions on 23 leading Russian politicians and overseas financial assets were frozen.
- UN took no action however EU member states were reluctant to go too far due to its dependence on oil and gas supplies.
- impacts were substantial - $70-90 bn left Russia.
96
What are structural adjustment programmes (SAPs)?
- The IMF and World Bank only agreed to help struggling countries if they agreed to
Structural Adjustment Policies (SAPS).
- SAPS are often policies which countries have to implement if they want to receive a loan.
- They are designed to help open up the developing countries to trade and production to grow their economy and help them develop.
97
What are the conditions of SAPs?
▪ Open up domestic markets to allow private investment
▪ Reduce the role of government by privatising industries and services
▪ Remove restrictions on capital so there are no limits on international investments
▪ Reduce government spending by cutting infrastructure and welfare spending
▪ Devalue currency to make exports cheaper
98
What are the problems with SAPs?
- critics argue that as a result of the above conditions many countries sacrificed their economic sovereignty as they liberalised their economies - becoming 'trans-nationalised' as TNCs took over privatised services and increasing their dependency on trade
- The policies are not always beneficial to the country that implements them.
99
What is the Highly Indebted Poor Countries initiative (HIPC) and why was it introduced?
- In 1996, the IMF and the World Bank introduced the HIPC initiative, following criticism over the spiralling debts of developing countries and lack of fair assistance from the IMF and World Bank.
- HIPC aimed at reducing the national debts of developing countries by writing them off in return for Structural Adjustment Policies.
- The HIPC initiative affected 36 of the world’s least developed countries with the greatest debts.
100
What's good about HIPC?
- By 2000, many NGOs (e.g. Oxfam) began demanding more action to reduce the debt
burden of the most indebted countries.
- In 2008, all debts owed to the World Bank and IMF by 18 HIPC were cancelled on condition that:
+ Each country showed financial management and a lack of corruption
+ National government spent any savings on poverty reduction, education and
healthcare
- this cost $40bn.
101
Managing threats to the biosphere - Ramsar Convention:
- 2016: UNEP stated that wetlands were mong the most diverse and productive ecosystems on the planet, yet threatened by urbanisation and economic development.
- early attempts to conserve and promote the sustainable use of wetlands came in in 1971 (Ramsar Convention)
- globally 2200 Ramsar sites are now managed by national governments international NGOs (e.g. WWF) and local bodies, e.g. Natural England.
- Although successful in the world, wetlands in the UK are in significant decline.
102
Managing threats to the atmosphere - Montreal Protocol:
- the build up of ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) and CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) in the atmosphere increases the amount of UV radiation reaching Earth's surface from the sun. This UV radiation damages human health and ecosystems, bio-geochemical cycles and air quality.
- Montreal Protocol was singed in 1987. It was a landmark agreement, which stipulated that both the production and consumption of ODSs must be phased out by 2000.
- by 2009, it was first global treaty to reach 197 signatories and to have achieved global ratification. By 2010 virtually all countries had phased out ODSs.
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Why was the Montreal Protocol successful?
- there was a definable cause-and-effect relationship
- substitutes for CFCs were readily available
- funding assistance was given to developing nations.
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Overall success of MP?
- most ODSs are also greenhouse gases so success has also resulted in a reduction of greenhouse gases and significant closing of the holes in the ozone layer.
- monitoring by NASA shows that levels of ODSs in atmosphere have declined sharply since the peak of 1989
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What are examples of actions taken by IGOs to protect the environment?
- Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)
- UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
- The Water Convention
- Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA)
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What is Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)?
- international agreement between govts, aiming to ensure international trade in wild animal and plant specimens does not threaten their survival.
- it protects over 35000 species of flora and fauna.
- however it has not been universally successful as its enforcement has not been strict enough
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What is UN Convection on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)?
- 1994: 157 countries signed UNCLOS - an agreement defining rights and responsibilities of nations in using world's oceans.
-it provided guidelines for manging marine resources, creating Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ) by extending territorial water zones to 200 nautical miles from the coast.
within these, coastal nations shave sole exploitation rights over resources, including fishing and minerals.
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Problems with UNCLOS?
- Despite clarifying most sea disputes, UNCLOS has lead to increased tensions over
disputes over new found islands, which lay claim to untapped natural resources and
military expansion opportunity.
- Such is the case over many islands in the South China Sea - which China, Japan, Taiwan, South Korea all argue over - and some Arctic Islands - causing conflict between USA, Denmark, Canada & Russia due to its proximity to the Arctic.
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What is the Water Convention?
- aims to protect the quantity, quality and sustainable use of trans-boundary water resources by promoting co-operation between countries.
- 42 nations signed it in 1992
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What is the Millennium Environmental Agreement (MEA)?
- began in 2001 to assess consequences of ecosystem change and actions needed to conserve and use ecosystems sustainably by appraising them and the services they provide.
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Why is MEA needed?
- since 1950, economic development and population growth have caused irreversible ecosystem damage.
- 50% of world's natural habitats have been cleared for human use and up to 1.5% is cleared annually.
- current rates of extinction are 100 times faster than natural rates and species lost is occurring at 30000 a year
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How do government's maintain a sense of nationalism?
- education
- sport and culture
- political parties
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Education:
-the curriculum areas of history and citizenship are important as they play a political and cultural role in nation-state building, whilst introducing a government's ideology from a young age.
- they may also be taught about legal and human rights and responsibilities to their country.
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Education - USA:
- national flags can be found in many classrooms around the world.
- in the USA students salute the national flag everyday and sing the national anthem.
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Education - UK:
- in 2014 it became a legal requirement to promote British moral values as part of students' 'Spiritual, Moral, Social and Cultural developments.
- fundamental British values comprise of beliefs in:
+ democracy
+ rule of law
+ individual liberty
+ mutual respect and tolerance.
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Sport and culture:
- individuals are likely to support their nation's sports in international events such as the Olympics or Paralympics.
- people dress up and paint their faces strengthening national identity.
- Olympic success saw athletes wrapping themselves in their national flags and singing their national anthems.
- the Olympics are an opportunity to indulge in nationalism, even if it is only briefly, and the effects are often strongest in the host country.
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Poltical parties:
- governments have used policies to reinforce national ideologies and values.
- party's agendas can be strongly associated with a country's identity to gain more voters and members.
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Political parties - Tony Blair example:
- in 1997 Tony Blair had a new vision of 'Cool Britannia'. He attempted to persuade Britons to revamp the country as young and creative.
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Political parties - South Korea and China:
- in 2005 there were widespread protests in South Korea and China as Japan approved new textbooks which would promote nationalist ideas of Japan and described WW2 conflict from the Japanese point of view.
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Political parties - UKIP:
- extreme right-wing political party and has grown since 1991.
- people want to restrict UK borders and adopt anti-migration policies.
- UKIP collaborated in the successful campaign to leave the EU in 2016 and support citizenship tests for migrants seeking permanent residency.
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Citizenship:
- USA: first amendment - freedom of speech and second amendment allows the right to self defense and the legal right to firearms.
- UK: Magna Carta is seen as the foundation of British laws, liberties and principles.
- Japan allows little inward migration to protect its culture and homogeneity.
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How is globalisation complicating definitions of national identity?
- urban centres usually attract most migrants in British cities have become centres of mixed populations.
- many cities now consists of people from many different nationalities including diverse ethnic groups.
- e.g. London - over 200 languages spoken and is an example of how globalisation complicates definitions of national identity and loyalty.
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London - face of multi-national Britain
- 2016: Sadiq Khan was elected as London Mayor and is the first from an ethnic minority group.
- 44% of the population was made up of black and other ethnic minorities .
- the wide ethnic mix makes the identity of both London and the UK more complex.
- 'A City for All Londoners' vision which aimed to celebrate diversity and unite through our unique culture.
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British brands - HP:
- HP was British owned before being bought by Heinz in 2005.
- it is one of many British brands that have been bought by foreign companies. In 2016, foreign TNCs spent over $100 billion buying British companies.
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Examples of 'British Brands' and their ownership:
- Jaguar Land Rover: Tata Motors (India)
- Scottish Power: Spain's Iberdrola
- BAA airport operator: Spain's Ferrovial
- Thames Water: German RWE
- P&O: Dubai Ports
- Abbey National Bank: Spain's Santander
- Cadburys: USA Kraft
- British Energy: French EDF
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Why is it difficult to recognise goods 'Made in Britain'?
- may be made by British companies under foreign ownership
- may consist of parts made abroad but assembled in the UK.
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Do the UK government intervene in take-overs?
- rarely intervenes in the sale of UK companies to foreign buyers, unless national security, financial stability or media plurality are at risk.
- elsewhere countries like France, Germany and the USA protect certain industries for strategic reasons.
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Media plurality definition:
- the ownership of several forms of media by the same company.
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What are the problems with company nationality?
- may not matter if it provides job security and boosts the economy.
- however take-overs mean that profits go abroad rather than remain in the UK so corporate taxes are paid overseas; with the UK government losing taxation revenue.
- e.g. Boots moved from HQ in UK to low-tax Switzerland in 2014. The new tax bill was £9 billion instead of the £89 billion the year before.
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Westernisation - entertainment:
- three companies (Sony BMG, Universal Music Group, and Warner Music Group) owns 80% of the global music market are all American.
- top four media companies in 2016 were Comcast, Disney, 21st Century Fox and Time Warner, providing both film and TV.
- In Australia, 70% of newspapers are owned by Rupert Murdoch's News Corporation.
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Westernisation - retailing;
- indoor centres such as Meadowhall, Westfield and Trafford Centre are built by large property companies with investment from pension funds and big banks.
- they change the nature and identity of retail in towns and cities, but with each mall global brands replace independent businesses and malls tend to look very similar.
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Westernisation example - Disney:
- owns 40 Spanish-speaking radio stations and dozens of international magazines.
- China: Disney uses leisure an film to expand their market and have opened a Chinese-language radio station in Hong Kong.
- 2015: also opened over 140 learning centres equipped with Disney materials in Chain, teaching English to 150,000 children.
- promotes a distinctive view of benefits of Westernisation.
- targets the middle classes in China and India, many of whom view Western brands as symbols of economic success and social fluidity.
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Who are the investors in London?
- 2013: Knight Frank placed Russians top of the list of foreign buyers of London homes.
Non-national investors are also buying into some of London's most recognisable locations - Qatari investors own stakes in the Shard, Canary Wharf and East Village.
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How has foreign investment changed over time?
- in 1980, 8% of the City of London was owned by non-national investors; in 2011 the proportion passed 50%.
- between 2008 and 2015, over £100 billion worth of property in London was brought by foreign companies.
- 2/3 of properties were registered to tax havens in Jersey, Guernsey, the Isle of Man and the British Virgin Islands.
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Why is this a problem?
- many investment properties remain unoccupied.
- owners are not on electoral register, yet change the identity of places.
- London's exclusive Belgravia Square has many Russian owners and 27 of its 30 properties are owned by foreign nationals.
- foreign ownership makes London very expensive for local residents.
- many properties become gated compounds, turning public access into private spaces with CCTV and security guards.
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UK citizens and EU landscape:
- UK citizens are responsible for changing place identities in coastal areas of France, Spain and Italy.
- there has been outward migration of British retirees and entrepreneurs abroad, replacing the cultural landscape of many tourist areas as a result.
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Business ownership - Chiquita:
- 1930s: owned over 1 million acres of land in Central America.
- by 1950s: owned over 50% of Honduras and 75% in Guatemala.
- built and ran infrastructure helping economic growth and fruit exports. Infrastructure included railways, power stations and port facilities.
- plantations replaced small farms, wages were introduced and homes, healthcare and education were all provided by the company.
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Business ownership - Tata Motors:
- owns steel plant in Port Talbot, South Wales.
- provides jobs and maintains the historical Welsh association with heavy industry.
- it is claimed that they benefit Welsh prosperity, invest in schools and support local health, safety and environmental policies.
- however in 2015 - cheap imported Chinese steel threatened Tata's profits and proposed closing the Port Talbot plant.
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Examples of nationalism movements:
- Catalonia
- Scotland
- EU
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Catalonia:
- Catalonia is located in north eastern Spain and Barcelona is the regional capital.
- wealthiest part of Spain: has 7.5 million people and contributes 20% of wealth in Spain.
- since 1978 Catalonia has enjoyed considerable levels of self governance with responsibility for education, healthcare, police, prison and culture.
- people in Catalonia, who identify as Catalonian, have strong views regarding independence with many being for it.
- in 2017 the Catalonian government held a referendum, where 90% of voters voted for independence. However this was deemed illegal by the Spanish government and therefore was not officially recognised.
- 2012: 1.5 million people demonstrated, demanding an independence referendum
- 2013: 90,000 attended a 'concert for freedom' at Camp Nou.
- 2014: mock referendum where 80% of people voted for independence.
-2015: pro-independence parties won a majority in regional elections.
-2016: Catalonian government due up a strategy to hold a referendum. However this was blocked by Madrid on constitutional grounds.
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Scotland
- in 2014 a referendum was held where 45% of voters voted for independence from the UK whilst 55% voted against independence from the UK.
- this created great division within the population.
- Scotland's income predominantly comes from oil and gas in the North Sea. Independence may be costly as there sources may be less reliable.
- however since Brexit there has been greater support for another referendum.
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EU:
- there are many European businesses in Catalonia.
- Catalan independence may result in renegotiations of trade deals and changes in tax, currency and regulations. This may create challenges for businesses in a similar way Brexit did.
- 2016: Corsica's new nationalist government had similar views - wanted to remain in EU but loosen ties with France.
- enjoys some form of self governance but is seeking changes due to movement in autonomy in Catalonia and Scotland.
- the leader now addresses the population in Corsican rather than French and they wave the 'moor's head' Corsican flag.
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Rising tensions in emerging nations:
- nationalism often has historical and cultural roots but has strengthened in places were globalisation has created tensions.
- the BRICS have all seen their GDP grow significantly however are also grappling with the consequences of national divisions.
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Rising tensions in emerging countries - Brazil:
- Brazil's hosting of the World Cup (2014) and then the Olympics (2016) exposed serious divisions in Brazilian society.
- more than $22 billion was spent on preparation for the WC, however many believed that this would be better spent on solving some of the existing problems in Brazil.
- Problems included poor public services, high food prices and widespread corruption amongst politicians.
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Rising tensions in emerging countries - Russia:
Russia is the world's largest country and is home to many ethnic groups, some residing far from Moscow.
- Nomadic herders are also found i Russia, wandering across the Northern altitudes.
- there is now rising tensions of the government's protection of ethnic groups within and outside Russia's borders.
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Rising tensions in emerging countries - India:
- rising tensions between Muslims and Hindus since India gained independence. Many Muslims in Kashmir support breaking away from India as a separate state or joining Pakistan.
- More than 500 million Indian people live in extreme poverty and lack access to healthcare and education and so is resentment from the inequality in benefits from globalisation.
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Rising tensions in emerging countries - China:
- China's hukou system means many rural migrants cannot benefit from globalisation, i.e. by working in factories suppling TNCs.
- there are 300 million rural migrants many of which suffer from poverty, famine and illness.
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Link between globalisation and inequality:
- globalisation has produced winners and losers.
- cheap loans have allowed many to buy cars or properties which has meant many people feel better off.
- however some of the emerging economies are the most unequal with Sweden being the most equal.
- inequality within most countries has grown, although the gap between the richer and poorer countries has shrunk.
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Inequality in South Africa:
- globalisation has allowed South Africa's manufacturers to gain access to wider markets with exports growing.
- The gold mines and tourism have presented the country with economic opportunities and growth.
- however the opening of SA has also meant taking on SAPs and accepting high levels of FDI and the in-migration of overseas businesses.
- Some South Africans have gained although inequalities between different ethnic groups have increased, as have political tensions.
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What are failed states?
- a failed state exists where the political or economic system has become so weak that the national government is no longer in control and cannot maintain security or law and order.
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What are examples of failed states?
- Somalia, Yemen, Libya and Zimbabwe
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What are the factors common in failed states?
- low life expectancy
- undemocratic government
- social unrest
- widespread poverty
- human rights abuses
- poor education, health and welfare
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Failed state example - Syria:
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Failed state example - Sudan:
- lacked internal cohesion since it became an independent state in 1955 due to its size.
-strong sense of division between north and south and in 2011, after 50 years of problems, Sudan abandoned their struggle for unity and divided in half.
- north stayed as Sudan with the capital being Khartoum and the south became South Sudan with the capital of Juba.
- South Sudan has become one of the worst health and development indicators in the world, including a mortality rate of 381 per 1000 and less than 1% of girls going to school.
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Failed state example - Somalia:
- Somalia has been seen as a failed state since 1991 after the military regime of President Barre was overthrown. The breakdown
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