unit 2 Flashcards
1
Q
epidermis + dermis
A
cutaneous membrane
2
Q
hair follicles, nails, exocrine glands
A
accessory structures
3
Q
cutaneous + accessory structure
A
integumentary systems
4
Q
- resistance to trauma + infection – keratin, desmosomes
- other barrier functions (water, UV, chemicals)
- vitamin d synthesis
- sensation
- thermoregulation
- nonverbal communication
A
major functions of the skin
5
Q
provide sensation
A
receptors
6
Q
- vitamin d enters body from diet or synthesis in skin
- vitamin d chemically modified first by the live and then bye he kidneys to function
- active vit d increase absorption of ca + phosphorus in intestine
- active vit d also increases bone breakdown which releases ca + phosphorus into blood; at kidneys, ca retention is stimulated reducing the amt lost in the urine
- normal levels of blood ca and phosphorus support mineralization of the bone
A
vitamin d synthesis
7
Q
______ associated with sensory neurons whose endings (dendrites) function as receptors
A
sensation
8
Q
- keratinocytes
- stem cells
- melanocytes
- tactile cells.
- dendritic cells
A
Epidermis cells
“Kinky Strippers Make Terrible Dancers”epidermis cells
9
Q
what are the epidermis cells?
mnemonic – “Kinky Strippers Make Terrible Dancers”
A
- keratinocytes
- stem cells
- melanocytes
- tactile cells.
- dendritic cells
10
Q
_____ is a major determinant of skin coloration
A
melanin
11
Q
what are the two melanin types
A
eumelanin + phaeomelanin
12
Q
______ produce melanin in mealnosomes
A
melanocytes
13
Q
______ are transferred to keratinocytes
A
melanosomes
14
Q
t/f individuals produce diff numbers of melanocytes
A
FALSE; THEY PRODUCE SIMILAR AMTS
15
Q
- pigment molecules: melanin (phaeomelanin + eumelanin), karaten
- blood flow (more = redness, less = pallor “pale”)
- oxygenation of blood (cyanosis = little blood)
- other: bruising, liver tissues. dark hyperpigmentation cause by insulin resistance + elevated blood glucose, inflammation
A
skin color influenced by other factors than melanin
16
Q
stratified keratinized squamous epithelium
A
epidermis
17
Q
dead keratinized cells of the skin surface
A
stratum corneum
18
Q
clear, featureless, narrow zone seen only in thick skin
A
stratum lucidum
19
Q
2-5 layers o cells with dark staining keratohyalin granules; scanty in thin skin
A
stratum grandulosum
20
Q
- many layers of keratinocytes, typically shrunken in sized tussles but attached to each other by desmosomes, which give them spiny look
- progressively fleeted the father they are away from dermis
- dendritic cells are abundant here but are not distinguishable in routinely stained preparations
A
stratum spinosum
21
Q
- sijnjgle layer of cuboidal to columnar cells resting on basement membrane
- site of most mitosis
- consists of stem cells,keratinocytes, melanocytes, tactile cells, but these are difficult to distinguish the routine stains
- melanin is conspicuous in keratinocytes of this layer in black and brown skin
A
stratum basale
22
Q
fibrous connective tissue; richly endowed with blood vessels + nerve endings
- sweat glands + hair follicles originate here and in hypodermic
A
dermis
23
Q
superficial 1/5 of debris
- composed of areolar tissue
- often extend upward as dermal papillae
A
papillary layer
24
Q
deeper 4/5th of dermis
- dense irregular connective tissue
A
reticular layer
25
which layer of the epidermis skin is only present in thick skin
**stratum lucidum**
26
Many vessels, receptors, and accessory structures (accessory organs) are associated with the ____
dermis
27
Functions of hair:
1. Provide sensation – bending of hairs stimulate root hair plexus (hair receptor)
2. Enhance facial expression (eyebrows)
3. Protection * Insects
* Foreign particles
* UV light, trauma, heat loss (head only)
A hair (pilus) is produced by a hair follicle
28
is comprised of keratinized epithelial cells (hard keratin
instead of soft keratin)
* Hairmedulla
* Haircortex
* Hair cuticle
Hair follicle consists of an epithelial root sheath and a connective tissue root sheath
hair
29
protect tips of fingers and toes, aid in sensitivity to small objects
Like hairs, comprised of thin dead cells and hard keratin
Nails
30
Glands that produce perspiration
Sweat glands
31
Sweat glands that function in evaporative cooling; widely distributed over the body surface; open by ducts onto the skin surface
Eccrine glands
32
Sweat glands that function as scent glands; found in the regions covered by the pubic, axillary, and male facial hair; open by ducts into hair follicles
Apocrine glands
33
Oil glands associated with hair follicles
Sebaceous glands
34
Glands of the ear canal that contribute to the cerumen (earwax)
Ceruminous glands
35
Milk-producing glands located in the breasts
Mammary glands
36
Sebaceous glands are exocrine glands that produce ___ and release it by holocrine secretion
sebum
37
mix triglycerides, cholesterol, proteins, electrolytes
sebum
38
1. inhibits growth bacteria
2. Lubricates + protects hair shaft
3. Conditions the skin
functions of the skin
39
raise hairs and push sebum towards the lumen of the hair follicle/surface of the skin
arrector pili muscles
40
Sweat + fatty substances + proteins; viscous, milky or yellowish
Sweat; 99% water, salts, vitamin c, antibodies, dermcidin (microbe-killing peptide), metabolic wastes
secretion
Odorless until bacterial interaction --> body odor
41
1. thermoregulation
2. excretion
3. protection from environmental hazards
functions of eccrine sweat glands
42
* Produce a secretion that mixes with sebum to form cerumen (earwax)
- prevents foreign particles from reaching the eardrum
- keeps eardrum pliable and waterproofs ear canal,
Ceruminous glands (modified apocrine glands)
43
Some anti-acne medications work by reducing sebum production. Why would dry skin be a side effect of this?
Dry skin is a side effect of anti-acne medications that reduce sebum production because sebum naturally moisturizes and protects the skin. Without adequate sebum, the skin loses moisture, leading to dryness and irritation.
44
Anhidrosis (also called hypohydrosis) is a condition in which the sweat glands do not function as they should (i.e., make too little sweat). Why might this be dangerous, even life threatening to a person on a hot summer’s day?
Anhidrosis can be dangerous because sweating is essential for cooling the body down and regulating temperature. Without adequate sweat production, the body can overheat, leading to heat exhaustion or potentially life-threatening heatstroke.
45
1. support
2. protection
3. movement: force of muscles transferred to skeleton to create movement
4. electrolyte balance : storage of ca + phosphate
5. acid-base balance --- phosphate and carbonate salts
6. blood formation : red bone marrow produces the formed elements
7. hormone secretion: osteocalcin helps regulate blood glucose and fat deposition
functions of the skeleton
46
____bones are often slightly curved, have two parallel flattened surfaces
flat
47
Short versus long is about proportions (length vs width), NOT overall size T/F
T
48
______ bones form in tendons, vary in size and numbers
Sesamoid
49
1. projections
2. articulating with other bones
3. openings and depressions
bone marking/features
50
____ tissue is harden by the deposition of ca phosphate salts (process = mineralization/calcification)
osseous
51
compact bone is aka?
cortical bone
52
spongy bone is aka?
cancellous bone
53
spaces within spongy bone are filled with ____
bone marrow (red/yellow)
54
externally bones are covered with connective tissue sheath Called _____
periosteum
55
cellular layer
osteogenic
56
- fibrous
- cellular layer
- supports a nerve and blood vessel supply
- anchoring and attachment of tendons and ligaments
- osteogenic layer is important for bone remodeling, growth, + fracture repair
periosteum
57
_____ layer is important for bone remodeling, growth, + fracture repair
osteogenic
58
_____ fibers strengthen the periosteum's attachment to bone
perforating
59
______ fibers of periosteum penetrate the bone tissue
collagen
60
insides of bones are covered by ______
endosteum
61
- reticular connective tissue + cells (osteoblasts, osteoprogenitor cells)
- similar functions to cellular layer of periosteum
- lines internal marrow cavity, surfaces of spongy bone, and canal system of bones
endosteum
62
- diaphysis (shaft)
- epiphysis (expanded ends)
- epiphyseal lines are remnants of the growth plates
- metaphysics (flared part btw the epiphysis & diaphysis
- ends of long bones are covered in articular cartilage
- periosteum + endosteum
- medullary cavity
- articular cartilage
gross anatomy of long bones
63
- ends of long bones are covered in _____ _____
articular cartilage
64
what are the major vessels that supply the long bones
***nutrient artery + vein***
65
- Thin Sheets of spongy bone sandwiched btw compact bone
- has both periosteum and endosteum
- consist of lattice of delicate silvers called ***spicules***(rods or spines) + ***trabeculae*** (thin plates or beams)
gross anatomy of flat bones
66
1. osteogenic
2. osteoblasts
3. osteoclasts
4. osteocytes
histology of osseous tissues
67
initially build osteoid and calcification transforms osteoid to bone
osteoblasts
68
found in lacunae, connected by canaliculi
osteocytes
69
breaks down matrix
osteoclasts
70
production of new bone matrix
osteogenesis or ossification
71
- secrete unmineralized matrix (osteoid) that includes collagen + calcium binding proteins
- release alkaline phosphatase, which makes inorganic phosphate available ---
allows calcium phosphate salts to form
osteoblasts
72
- osteoblasts become ____ (trapped in matrix after it hardens)
- canaliculi contain extensions of ___ cytoplasm + membrane
- osteocytes connected to one another by gap junctions
osteocyte
73
breaking down of bone
osteolysis or resorption
74
what does Ca salts add to bones
hardness
75
ca salts has little resistance to
tension (pulling + twisting)
76
collagen fibers adds what to bones
resisting pulling and twisting forces
77
collagen fibers on its own has little resistance to ___
compression
78
functional unit of compact bone
osteon
79
"little plates", layers of matrix
lamellae
80
Haversian canal; blood vessels and nerves
central canal
81
- central canal vs perforating canal
- osteons
- other lamellae
Compact bone structure
82
***spicules***(delicate rods or spines) + ***trabeculae*** (thin plates or beams)
- trabeculae arranged along stress lines
spongy bone
83
- lamellae are irregularly arranged, only have few cell layers, so central canals aren't needed
- canaliculi open onto surface, nutrients come from capillaries associated with the endosteum
organization of lamellae in spongy bone
84
- red marrow vs yellow (adipose)
bone marrow
85
___ bone most abundant where bone is not heavily stressed or stresses originate from many directions
spongy
86
_____ can also help transfer forces --- oriented along lines of mechanical stress
trabeculae
87
___ bones thickest where forces applied from limited number of directions
compact
88
embryonic skeleton starts as ____ connective tissue membranes & ____ cartilage
fibrous; hyaline
89
- most complex means of bone formation b/c cartilage must be broken down as ossification proceeds
endochondral ossification
90
ossification = process of bone tissue formation
osteogenesis
91
deposition of calcium salts
calcification
92
_____ are areas of hyaline cartilage that allow long bones to elongate until ossify
epiphyseal
93
- expand within to increase in length
- division of chondrocytes of the epiphyseal cartilage
- bone replaces cartilage at roughly the same rate cartilage grows
interstitial growth
94
- new matrix secreted against an external face of an existing boundary
- increase in width -- thickens + strengthens long bone by adding layers of circumferential lamellae to outside
- involves periosteum + endosteum
- associated with increasing the thickness of bones, enlargement of the medullary cavity
appositional growth
95
architecture of bone is deterred by mechanical stressed placed upon it
Wolff's law of bone
96
______ lie along stress lines
trabeculae
97
- involves osteocytes, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts
- recycle + renew bone matrix
- contributes to calcium homeostasis
bone remodeling
98
loss bone density
osteopenia
99
advances loss of bone density where bone fractures easily, spinal deformities common due to weight o upper body can collapse vertebrae
osteoporosis
100
- severe neuromuscular problems
- hyperexcitability (levels too low)
hypocalcemia
101
- nonresponsive (levels too high)
- deposits of calcium salts in blood vessels, kidneys can interfere with function
hypercalcemia
102
homeostatic mechanism regulate calcium storage, absorption, and exertion ; involving ____ feedback
negative
103
adapt stress -- heavily stressed bones become thicker + stronger by stimulating _____
osteoblasts
104
require for collagen synthesis
vit c
105
stimulates osteoblast activity
vit a
106
required for synthesis of bone proteins
vit k + b12
107
what hormones stimulate bone growth
growth + thyroxine
108
estrogen and testosterone stimulate osteoblasts
sex hormones
109
maintains calcium ion and homeostasis
parathyroid + calcitonin
110
1. excitable
2. conductivity: local electrical excitation sets off a wave of excitation
3. contractibility
4. extensibility
5. elasticity
universal characteristics of muscles
111
1. produce movement
2. maintain posture and body position, support
3. control of body openings + passages
4. maintain body temperature -- produce heart
5. store nutrients
6. glycemic control: absorb, store, + use sugar; secrete hormones (myokines) that affect liver activity + fat breakdown
skeletal muscle
112
muscle cells with elongated shapes
muscle fibers
113
complete organ surrounded by muscular fascia + epimysium; had m any blood vessels + nerves, including motor neurons that stimulate contraction
whole muscle
114
bundle of muscle fibers within the entire muscle; surrounded but he connective tissue layer, perimysium
muscle fascicle
115
individual muscle cell with a disciple; surrounded but he connective tissue layer, endomysium
muscle fiber
116
groups of contractile protein within individual fibers; surrounded red by specialized endoplasmic reticulum called sarcoplasmic reticulum
myofibril
117
protein filaments, either myosin or actin; interact to shorten the muscle fiber during contraction
myofilament
118
provide routes for blood vessels and nerves to enter the muscle, stabilize their positions
connection tissue sheaths
119
sheet of connective tussle that separates neighboring muscles or groups from each other or subcutaneous tissue
fascia
120
dense irregular connective tissue
epimysium
121
surrounds disciples (bundles of 2-60 fibers)
perimysium
122
delicate, loose connective tussle sheath, chemical environment is important for muscle function
endomysium
123
each nucleus in skeletal muscle corresponds to one ___
myoblast
124
spindle shaped precursors to muscle cells that fuse together to form long cylindrical cells
- repair is possible because some myoblasts remain as adult stem cells called statellite cells
myoblasts
125
mature fibers are filled with actin and myosin proteins -- regulated arrangement gives ____ pattern
striated
126
plasma mem
sacrolemma
127
cytoplasm
sarcoplasm
128
long protein cords
myofibrils
129
aerobic cellular respiration
mitochondria
130
transverse tubule + terminal cistern of sarcoplasmic reticulum
triads
131
myofibrils are ___ during contraction
shortened
132
A band
dArk
133
I band
lIght
134
Thin filaments are associated with ____
actin (more light shines through)
135
Thick filaments are associated with ____
myosin(less light shines through)
136
elastic filament (titin) attach thick filaments to ___ line and facilities recoil to resting length to avoid overstretching
z
137
actin + myosin are considered ____ proteins
contractile
138
tropomyosin + troponin are considered ___ proteins
regulatory
139
links actin to the sacrolemma -- ultimately helps transfer the endomysium + and ultimately the tendon
dystrophin
140
- H bands & I bands narrow, ones of overlap widen
- z lines move closer together
- width of A band remains constant
during contraction
141
how do we get contraction of all the sarcomeres within a muscle fiber at once
excitation-contraction coupling
142
protein anions are outside or inside the cell more
inside
143
skeletal muscles only contract when they receive signals from ___ neurons
motor
144
which NT is involved in muscle contraction
ACH
145
area where the signals are received
motor endplate
146
space that separates axon terminal from the motor endplate
synaptic cleft
147
postsynaptic membranes folds increase the surface area for ___
receptors
148
ACH binds ligand gated channels --> ?
end plate potential (mem potential at the motor endplate becomes less neg)
149
voltage gated channels will propagate the action potentials along the sarcolemma and down the ?
transverse tubules
150
voltage sensitive tubule proteins of T tubules change shape, which opens __ ion channels in terminal cisterns of the sarcoplasmic reticulum
calcium
151
acetylcholinesterase breaks down _____ --> ligand-gated channels close
acetylcholine
152
calcium is taken back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum
- troponin will return to it s original shape / position
- moves tropomyosin back to origin position
- active sites covered
- cross-bridges unable to form
- contraction ends
muscle relaxation
153
1. length of sarcomere at the start of contraction
2. frequency of the stimulus
3. which motor units are contracting
4. total number of motor units contracting (recruitment)
what affects the amount of tension produced
154
1. action potential propagates along sarcolemma and down t tubules
2. calcium ions are released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum
- ca binds to troponin
- troponin gets moved
- active sites exposed thick and thin filaments
-
muscle contraction
