1
Q
Fill in the blank:
A branch of psychology that studies the physical, cognitive, social, and emotional growth of a person across the lifespan is ______ psychology.
A
developmental
Developmental psychologists study human growth from “womb to tomb”.
2
Q
Describe:
longitudinal research
A
This method involves following a small group of people over a long portion of their lives, assessing change at set intervals.
Two shortcomings of longitudinal research are that it is very time-consuming and is difficult to conduct reliably and validly due to attrition over time.
3
Q
Describe:
cross-sectional research
A
This method compares groups of people of different ages on similar tasks.
One shortcoming of cross-sectional research is that data collected reveals little about the actual development of any single individual.
4
Q
Which pervasive debate in developmental psychology deals with the extent to which heredity and the environment each influence behavior?
A
nature vs. nurture debate
5
Q
The theme of stability vs. change looks at what controversial issue in developmental psychology?
A
Whether or not personality traits present during infancy endure throughout the lifespan.
6
Q
Describe:
the issue of continuity vs. discontinuity
(as it pertains to human development)
A
This issue asks which aspects of development are continuous and develop gradually across a lifetime and which aspects of development are discontinuous and develop abruptly.
Continuous development can be thought of like a smooth escalator going from the first floor to the second floor.
Discontinuous development can be thought of like going from the first floor to the second floor via a set of stairs.
7
Q
Fill in the blank:
Any chemicals or viruses that can reach an embryo or fetus and cause harm is a ______.
A
teratogen
Alcohol is one example of a teratogen, because exposure could harm an embryo or fetus and lead to fetal alcohol syndrome.
8
Q
Define:
reflexes
(as they pertain to newborn babies)
A
Reflexes are automatic, involuntary responses to stimulation that promote survival.
9
Q
Fill in the blank:
The ______ reflex occurs when a newborn turns their head and opens their mouth when someone touches their cheek or the corner of their mouth.
A
rooting
10
Q
What is maturation?
A
The orderly sequence of biological growth. The course of maturation is set by nature and is universal for most babies.
Maturation (nature) sets the basic course of development and experience (nurture) adjusts its timing.
11
Q
Fill in the blanks:
A ______ ______ is a chief example of physical development during adolescence.
A
growth spurt
The adolescent growth spurt serves as an example of discontinuous development.
12
Q
Fill in the blanks:
The time during which a skill or ability must develop is referred to as a ______ ______.
A
critical period
Another term for critical period is sensitive period.
If certain skills or abilities (like language development) are not learned during that critical period, that ability will not be acquired.
13
Q
Compare and contrast:
fine motor coordination and gross motor coordination
(as it pertains to human development)
A
- Both fine and gross motor coordination occur during infant and childhood development.
- Fine motor coordination is the development of small muscles in the body.
- Gross motor coordination is the development of big muscles and whole body movement.
14
Q
Puberty is a time of sexual maturation marked by the onset of what ability?
A
The ability to reproduce.
15
Q
Define:
menopause
(as it pertains to human development)
A
Menopause results in the cessation of menstruation in women.
16
Q
Fill in the blanks:
Emerging during puberty, ______ ______ ______, such as the growth of reproductive organs, develop.
A
primary sex characteristics
Primary sex characteristics develop during puberty and allow for reproduction.
17
Q
Fill in the blanks:
In women, widening of the hips and breast development would be two examples of ______ ______ ______.
A
secondary sex characteristics
Secondary sex characteristics are non-reproductive traits that develop during puberty due to hormonal changes.
18
Q
What is menarche?
A
A girl’s first menstrual period.
19
Q
What is spermarche?
A
The onset of sperm production and a boy’s first ejaculation.
20
Q
Which theory assumes we acquire our identity through observing and imitating others and being rewarded or punished?
A
Social learning theory
21
Q
To make sense of the world around us, the maturing brain develops schemas. What are schemas?
A
Schemas are concepts or frameworks the brain develops to organize and interpret information.
For example, through experiences, humans develop schemas for “what is a dog” and “what is a cat” to organize and differentiate between those species of animals.
22
Q
Fill in the blanks:
In developing schemas, the brain ______ new experiences and ______ schemas to make them more refined and precise.
A
assimilates; accommodates
23
Q
What are Piaget’s stages of development?
A
- Sensorimotor
- Preoperational
- Concrete operational
- Formal operational
24
Q
Fill in the blank:
The ______ stage of cognitive development is characterized by a young child taking in the world around them.
A
sensorimotor
Piaget said children are in this stage from birth to age 2.
25
If a toy disappears from a child's field of view, the child will continue to look for it. This exemplifies the development of which milestone during the sensorimotor stage?
object permanence
26
# Fill in the blank:
The \_\_\_\_\_\_ stage of cognitive development is characterized by a child who is able to use language but is unable to comprehend mental operations of concrete logic.
preoperational
27
During the preoperational stage of cognitive development, children learn to utilize mental symbols. Define **mental symbols**.
The use of **internal representations** (symbols) to represent objects or ideas that aren't physically present.
## Footnote
Children using a block as a phone to talk to imaginary friends is an example of symbolic thought.
28
Pretend play and parallel play become possible during the preoperational stage of cognitive development. Contrast **pretend** and **parallel** play.
* Pretend play is the use of **imagination** to act out make-believe scenarios.
* Parallel play is the **ability of one child to play** next to another child without influencing their actions.
29
# Define:
conservation
| (as it pertains to cognitive development)
Conservation is the understanding and awareness that an object's amount (quantity, volume, or mass) **stays the same** even if that object changes shape.
## Footnote
This is gained during the concrete operational stage of cognitive development.
30
# Fill in the blank:
The ability to perform a mental operation, then reverse thinking back to a starting point is a concept known as \_\_\_\_\_\_.
reversibility
## Footnote
This is gained during the concrete operational stage of cognitive development.
31
# Fill in the blank:
Giving lifelike qualities to inanimate objects is called \_\_\_\_\_\_.
animism
## Footnote
This is common in young children when they believe their stuffed animals have feelings.
32
# Fill in the blank:
The inability to see the world from anyone else's point of view is \_\_\_\_\_\_.
egocentrism
## Footnote
A young child who covers their eyes believing that they cannot be seen because they cannot see anything is an example of egocentrism.
33
# Define:
theory of mind
| (as it pertains to cognitive development)
The ability to understand and recognize differing **states of mind** in other people.
## Footnote
Those with Autism Spectrum Disorder may exhibit delays in the development of theory of mind.
34
# Fill in the blanks:
\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ is the third stage of cognitive development, according to Piaget.
Concrete operational
## Footnote
In this stage, children can grasp logical and concrete information and perform arithmetical operations.
35
Although children will grasp conservation and understand the world in a logical, straightforward way, they will still struggle to think systematically.
**What does this mean**?
**Systematic thinking** involves viewing information from a holistic view and understanding how the different parts of a system work together and interact.
36
What **characteristics** describe the formal operational stage of cognitive development?
Children are now able to **understand** and **think logically** about abstract and hypothetical problems.
37
If you are able to construct a solution to a problem with which you have no experience, you would be exhibiting what **two abilities** found in **Piaget's formal operational stage**?
hypothetical reasoning and abstract reasoning
38
Explain how the concepts of **scaffolding** and zone of proximal development help to explain Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development.
Vygotsky believed children are social learners and learn best when they are in a position where the task to be completed isn't too easy or too hard, it's in a place where **it can be completed with help**. This is the **zone of proximal development**.
By getting children in this space and then **providing support** as the task becomes more **difficult** (**scaffolding**), children will be best able to learn and grow.
39
# Define:
imaginary audience
| (as it pertains to cognitive development)
During adolescence, teens **begin to imagine** what others are thinking of them.
40
# Define:
personal fable
| (as it pertains to cognitive development)
During adolescence, teens begin to **believe they are unique** and events that happen to others would never happen to them.
## Footnote
"I don't need to wear my seatbelt because I'll never be in a car accident."
41
Older adults are more susceptible to cognitive disorders like dementia. What is **dementia**?
A category of cognitive disorders that is characterized by **impaired memory**, **cognition**, and **decision-making**.
## Footnote
Alzheimer's disease is the most common form of dementia.
42
# Fill in the blank:
The smallest units of sound in a language are \_\_\_\_\_\_.
phonemes
## Footnote
The English language has 44 phonemes.
43
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_\_ are the smallest units of sound in a language that carry a meaning.
Morphemes
44
How many **phonemes and morphemes** are in the word 'cats'?
There are **4** phonemes (sounds) and **2** morphemes (cat and s) in the word "cats".
45
# Fill in the blank:
A language's set of rules that enables communication and understanding is \_\_\_\_\_\_.
grammar
## Footnote
Grammatical rules lead to an understanding of the meaning of the sounds (semantics) and how the words are ordered in a sentence (syntax).
46
List the **four** stages of language development.
1. Cooing
2. Babbling
3. One-word stage
4. Two-word stage (telegraphic speech)
47
What **characteristics** describe the cooing stage of language development?
This stage generally begins around **2 months of age** when babies begin making **soft vowel sounds** like "ooh", "goo", and "aah".
48
# True or False:
Babies in the babbling stage of language development are attempting to mimic their parents' language.
False
## Footnote
It would be impossible to determine a baby's nationality or ethnicity simply by their babbling.
49
# Fill in the blanks:
The \_\_\_\_\_\_-\_\_\_\_\_\_ stage of language development begins around the first birthday.
one-word
## Footnote
The baby knows that sounds carry meaning and begin using simple words to communicate. Most babies' first words are usually nouns that identify familiar objects or people.
50
# Describe:
telegraphic speech
| (as it pertains to language development)
* Begins around the second birthday.
* Indicative of the two-word stage.
* Speech contains only nouns and verbs and sounds like a telegram.
## Footnote
Examples of telegraphic speech would be "more juice" and "car go".
51
Young children in the **two-word stage** of language development will overgeneralize grammar rules. Explain this concept and give an example.
* This occurs when a general grammar rule (add 's' to make a word plural) is applied to irregular words.
* An example would be saying "tooths" instead of "teeth".
52
# Fill in the blank:
An impairment of language is called \_\_\_\_\_\_.
aphasia
## Footnote
Damage to Broca's area and Wernicke's area in the brain will cause aphasia.
53
# Describe:
how damage to **Broca's area** will impact language
* Broca's area is located in the **left frontal lobe**.
* Damage to Broca's area will lead to a person **struggling to physically speak words**.
* Might sound like a **severe stutter** or **halting** of speech.
54
# Describe:
how damage to **Wernicke's area** will impact language
* Wernicke's area is in the **left temporal lobe**.
* Damage to Wernicke's area will impact a person's **ability to understand** and **comprehend** others' speech and could result in an ability to speak nonsensical sentences.
55
The ecological systems theory explores how social environments influence development. List and describe the **five** systems of this theory.
1. **Microsystem**: groups that have direct contact with an individual (home, school, community).
2. **Mesosystem**: the relationship between groups in the microsystem (parents and friends).
3. **Exosystem**: indirect factors in a person's life (a parent's workplace).
4. **Macrosystem**: cultural events that impact an individual (values, beliefs, politics).
5. **Chronosystem**: individual's current stage of life and events (moving, birth of sibling, divorce).
56
# Fill in the blanks:
\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ occurs when children express heightened anxiety or fear when away from a caregiver or in the presence of a stranger.
Separation anxiety
## Footnote
Separation anxiety is evidence of a normal and healthy attachment to a caregiver.
57
# Describe:
how the Harlow rhesus monkey experiment demonstrated the preference of contact comfort (soft touch and warmth) over nourishment for **attachment**
When placed in a stressful situation, the young monkeys **prioritized contact comfort** (warmth and soft touch) over nourishment for attachment and safety.
58
What are the **characteristics** of secure attachment between a caregiver and a child?
* When caregiver is present with child, the child plays and explores the environment.
* When caregiver leaves the room, the child becomes distressed.
* When the caregiver returns, the child seeks contact.
59
What are **three** types of insecure attachment? List and describe.
1. **Avoidant attachment**: child appears indifferent to caregiver, shows little distress during separation
2. **Anxious attachment**: child seeks closeness and shows high distress and clinginess
3. **Disorganized attachment**: child shows no consistent behavior
60
How does **temperament** impact attachment?
Temperament is a person's **emotional reactivity and intensity**. This is partially a result of genetics and impacts attachment by influencing both how the child reacts to a parent's care and how the parent responds to either a child with an easy or difficult temperament.
61
# Describe:
authoritarian parenting
| (as it pertains to parenting styles)
* Parents are **coercive**.
* They impose rules and **expect obedience**.
* No exceptions. No discussion.
62
# Describe:
authoritative parenting
| (as it pertains to parenting styles)
* Parents are **confrontational**.
* They are both **demanding** and **responsive**.
* They set rules but **encourage discussion** and allow exceptions, when applicable.
63
# Describe:
permissive parenting
| (as it pertains to parenting styles)
Parents are **unrestraining**. There are **few rules** or demands and little punishment.
64
# Fill in the blanks:
The unwritten, culturally-defined timetable for when someone should complete major life events is the \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_.
social clock
65
# Fill in the blanks:
Name the time between adolescence and adulthood when a person is not ready to be fully independent: \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_.
emerging adulthood
## Footnote
Many graduating from college move back in with their parents while they find a job and accumulate enough money to be independent.
66
Erikson's theory of psychosocial development proposes that people must resolve issues at all **stages of psychosocial development** across the lifespan. **List the stages**.
* trust and mistrust
* autonomy and shame and doubt
* initiative and guilt
* competence (industry) and inferiority
* identity and role confusion
* intimacy and isolation
* generativity and stagnation
* integrity and despair
67
# Describe:
the issue of trust and mistrust
| (as it applies to psychosocial development)
Infants understand who they can trust based on who **satisfies their basic needs**.
68
# Describe:
the issue of autonomy and shame and doubt
| (as it applies to psychosocial development)
Toddlers begin to **learn to do some tasks by themselves** or doubt their capabilities.
69
# Describe:
the issue of initiative and guilt
| (as it applies to psychosocial development)
Preschoolers learn to **initiate tasks** or they feel **guilty** if they do not.
70
# Describe:
the issue of competence (industry) and inferiority
| (as it applies to psychosocial development)
Children develop a sense of being **productive** or they feel **inferior**.
71
# Describe:
the issue of identity and role confusion
| (as it applies to psychosocial development)
Teens to early 20s work to **figure out their identity** and answer the question, "who am I?" or feel confusion if they cannot.
72
# Describe:
the issue of intimacy and isolation
| (as it applies to psychosocial development)
Young adults establish **close relationships** and families or feel isolated.
73
# Describe:
the issue of generativity and stagnation
| (as it applies to psychosocial development)
Middle-aged adults feel a sense of **contributing to the world** through their family and job or feel a **lack of purpose** if they do not.
74
# Describe:
the issue of integrity and despair
| (as it applies to psychosocial development)
Older adults reflect on their life and feel a **sense of satisfaction** and pride or despair if they feel their contributions were **lacking**.
75
Severe deprivation or abuse during childhood can slow development. What is the **term** for this occurrence?
Adverse Childhood Experiences
| (ACEs)
76
Identity formation during adolescence moves through **four** stages. List the **stages** and briefly **describe** the stages.
1. **Diffusion**: no clear commitment to an identity
2. **Foreclosure**: a premature commitment to an identity with little exploration
3. **Moratorium**: a genuine attempt to find a meaningful identity
4. **Achievement**: a committed sense of self
77
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_\_ is the process of acquiring relatively enduring information and/or behaviors through experience.
Learning
78
List **two** beliefs behavioral psychologists have about psychology.
1. Psychology should be an **objective science**.
2. Psychology should study **behaviors** and be devoid of the study of **mental processes**.
79
# Define:
associative learning.
Learning that two events **occur together**.
## Footnote
Both classical conditioning and operant conditioning are examples of associative learning.
80
# Fill in the blank:
The decreased responsiveness to the same, repeated stimuli is \_\_\_\_\_\_.
habituation
## Footnote
People who live close to railroad tracks will notice when a train comes by less and less over time.
81
What was the **premise** of Ivan Pavlov's **classical conditioning** experiment?
Dogs salivate at the sight of food because they **form associations** with food and events preceding eating the food. Pavlov sounded a bell before presenting food, so the dogs would ultimately salivate at the sound of the bell.
82
# Define in terms of Pavlov's experiment:
neutral stimulus
| (NS)
A stimulus that initially **does not elicit a response** until it becomes a conditioned stimulus.
## Footnote
Pavlov's example: The NS is the bell because it does not naturally produce salivation until it is paired with the food.
83
# Define in terms of Pavlov's experiment:
unconditioned stimulus
| (UCS or US)
A stimulus that **naturally** brings about a **response**.
## Footnote
Pavlov's example: Food is the UCS because it automatically brings about salivation.
84
# Define in terms of Pavlov's experiment:
unconditioned response
| (UCR or UR)
An automatic, **involuntary reaction** to an **unconditioned stimulus**.
## Footnote
Pavlov's example: The UCR is salivation because the dogs automatically salivate when they eat food.
85
# Define in terms of Pavlov's experiment:
conditioned stimulus
| (CS)
A stimulus that starts as a **neutral stimulus**, but when paired with UCS repeatedly, eventually brings about the conditioned response.
## Footnote
Pavlov's example: The CS is the bell because, when paired with the food, it brought about salivation.
86
# Define in terms of Pavlov's experiment:
conditioned response
| (CR)
A **learned response** to a previously neutral stimulus.
## Footnote
Pavlov's example: Salivation is the CR because the dog learned to salivate in response to the bell.
87
# Fill in the blank:
A stimulus is \_\_\_\_\_\_ if it elicits a response automatically.
unconditioned
88
# Fill in the blank:
A stimulus is \_\_\_\_\_\_ if it requires learning to elicit a response.
conditioned
89
# Define:
acquisition
| (as it pertains to classical conditioning)
The **initial learning** of an association, as when a neutral stimulus is **paired** with an unconditioned stimulus.
## Footnote
In Pavlov's experiment, the dogs acquired the learning through the pairing of the bell (NS) with the food (UCS).
90
# Fill in the blanks:
\_\_\_\_\_\_-\_\_\_\_\_\_ conditioning occurs when a neutral stimulus is paired with a conditioned stimulus, rather than with an unconditioned stimulus.
Higher-order
## Footnote
An example of this would be Pavlov teaching his dogs to salivate at the lights turning off and on because it is being associated with the sound of the bell.
91
What occurs when a conditioned stimulus is **no longer associated** with an unconditioned stimulus?
extinction
## Footnote
In Pavlov's experiment, the dogs' salivation would diminish if the bell (CS) was no longer paired with the food (UCS).
92
# Describe:
spontaneous recovery
| (as it pertains to classical conditioning)
The **reappearance** of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period of time.
## Footnote
If, after extinction and a delay, Pavlov rang the bell and the dogs salivated, the dogs would be displaying spontaneous recovery.
93
# Define in terms of classical conditioning:
stimulus generalization
When a stimulus similar to a conditioned stimulus elicits the conditioned response **without any new conditioning**.
## Footnote
If Pavlov changed the tone of the bell to a whistle and the dogs continue to salivate, stimulus generalization has occurred.
94
# Define in terms of classical conditioning:
stimulus discrimination
When the conditioned stimulus is **changed** and there is **no response**.
## Footnote
If Pavlov changed the tone of the bell to a whistle and the dog does not salivate, stimulus discrimination has occurred.
95
# Fill in the blanks:
\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ explains that animals are more likely to learn some associations over others.
Biological preparedness
## Footnote
From an evolutionary perspective, animals are more likely to learn associations that promote survival.
96
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_\_ conditioning is a type of learning where behaviors become more likely if they are associated with a reinforcer and less likely if associated with a punishment.
Operant
## Footnote
If someone is rewarded for an action, they are more likely to do it again.
If someone is punished for an action, they are less likely to do it again.
97
# Fill in the blank:
Any consequence that strengthens a behavior is a \_\_\_\_\_\_.
reinforcer
98
# Fill in the blank:
Any consequence that decreases a behavior is a \_\_\_\_\_\_.
punisher
99
# Define:
the law of effect
| (as it applies to learning)
A principle that behaviors followed by **favorable** consequences are more likely to **recur** and behaviors followed by **unfavorable** consequences become **less likely**.
100
# Compare and contrast:
positive and negative reinforcement
| (as they pertain to an influence on learning)
* Both types of reinforcement **increase or strengthen a response**.
* **Positive reinforcement** presents a pleasurable stimulus to increase a behavior.
* **Negative reinforcement** removes a negative stimulus to increase a behavior.
## Footnote
* An example of positive reinforcement would be presenting a child with a piece of candy if they clean their room.
* An example of negative reinforcement would be a child cleaning their room to remove the request from their nagging parents.
101
# Contrast:
primary and secondary reinforcers
| (as they pertain to an influence on learning)
* Primary reinforcers are unlearned and satisfy **biological** needs.
* Secondary reinforcers gain their power through **learned associations**.
## Footnote
Food is a primary reinforcer. More TV time is a secondary reinforcer.
102
How is **shaping** used to teach a new behavior?
By **positively reinforcing** closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.
## Footnote
An example would be reinforcing a child learning to tie their shoes as they complete each step of the process.
103
What is a **continuous reinforcement** schedule?
Providing reinforcement every time a **desired behavior is exhibited**.
## Footnote
Giving a child a piece of candy every time they complete a chore.
104
What is a **partial reinforcement** schedule?
Reinforcing a desired behavior only **some of the time**.
105
List **four** partial reinforcement schedules.
1. fixed ratio
2. fixed interval
3. variable ratio
4. variable interval
106
# Define:
fixed ratio schedule
| (as it pertains to partial reinforcement)
Reinforcement after a specific or known number of **responses**.
## Footnote
Example: Every three times you get a question right, you get a piece of candy.
107
# Define:
fixed interval schedule
| (as it pertains to partial reinforcement)
Reinforcement after a specific or known amount of **time**.
## Footnote
Example: Receiving a paycheck from work every other Friday.
108
# Define:
variable ratio schedule
| (as it pertains to partial reinforcement)
Reinforcement after an **unknown number of responses**.
## Footnote
Example: Pulling the lever on a slot machine until you win.
109
# Define:
variable interval schedule
| (as it pertains to partial reinforcement)
Reinforcement after an **unknown amount of time**.
## Footnote
Example: Checking your email until you receive an important message.
110
Which partial reinforcement schedule results in a **scalloped graph**?
Fixed interval schedule
## Footnote
Because animals know that reinforcement will only come after a known amount of time, they only perform the desired behavior when that time nears.
111
# Fill in the blanks:
\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ refers to the tendency of learned behaviors by animals to slowly revert back to biologically predisposed actions.
Instinctual drift
## Footnote
Chickens trained to turn completely around to receive food will slowly revert back to scratching and pecking.
112
# Describe:
latent learning
| (as it pertains to demonstrating learning)
Occurs when animals demonstrate learned behaviors when there is an **incentive** to do so.
## Footnote
A mouse may only demonstrate they know the way through a maze when there is food at the end of it.
113
# Fill in the blanks:
A \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ is a mental representation or understanding of the layout of an environment.
cognitive map
## Footnote
Knowing where all the rooms are in a house demonstrates the forming of a cognitive map.
114
# Fill in the blank:
The sudden realization to a problem's solution demonstrates \_\_\_\_\_\_ learning.
insight
## Footnote
It's that 'ah-ha' moment.
115
# Fill in the blanks:
Social learning theory proposes that we can learn through watching others. This is known as \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_.
observational learning
116
# Define:
modeling
| (as it pertains to observational learning)
Modeling is the process of observing and then **mimicking** a behavior.
## Footnote
If a young child watches their parent shave and then pretends to do so, they are modeling.
117
# Define:
vicarious conditioning
| (as it pertains to observational learning)
Learning that occurs through **watching** others rather than through **direct reward or punishment**.
