unit 3 part 2 vocab

Question 1

extinction

Answer 1

in classical conditioning, the diminishing of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus. (in operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced.)

Question 2

spontaneous recovery

Answer 2

the reappearance, after a pause, of a weakened conditioned response

Question 3

generalization

Answer 3

in classical conditioning, the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (in operant conditioning, when responses learned in one situation occur in other, similar situations.)

Question 4

discrimination

Answer 4

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been associated with a conditioned stimulus. (in operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced.)

Question 5

preparedness

Answer 5

a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value

Question 6

John Garcia

Answer 6

researched taste aversion. showed that when rats ate a novel substance before being nauseated by a drug or radiation, they developed a conditioned taste aversion for the substance. research in conditioning and learning.

Question 7

operant conditioning

Answer 7

a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher. we learn to associate a response (our behavior) and its consequence.

Question 8

B.F. Skinner

Answer 8

Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats

Question 9

Edward L. Thorndike

Answer 9

known for the law of effect- the principle that rewarded behavior is likely to recur and punished behavior is unlikely to recur. proposed the concept of social intelligence

Question 10

law of effect

Answer 10

Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable (or reinforcing) consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable (or punishing) consequences become less likely

Question 11

operant chamber

Answer 11

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking

Question 12

reinforcement

Answer 12

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

Question 13

shaping

Answer 13

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

Question 14

cognitive map

Answer 14

a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment

Question 15

latent learning

Answer 15

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Question 16

insight learning

Answer 16

solving problems through sudden insight; contrasts with strategy-based solutions

Question 17

observational learning

Answer 17

learning by observing others (also called social learning)

Question 18

modeling

Answer 18

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Question 19

Albert Bandura

Answer 19

the pioneering researcher of observational learning; bobo dolls study where adults demonstrated ‘appropriate’ play with dolls and children mimicked play

Question 20

mirror neurons

Answer 20

neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. the brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy

Question 21

prosocial behavior

Answer 21

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. the opposite of antisocial behavior

Question 22

antisocial behavior

Answer 22

negative, destructive, harmful behavior. the opposite of prosocial behavior

Question 23

punishment

Answer 23

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows

Question 24

variable interval schedule

Answer 24

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

Question 25

fixed interval schedule

Answer 25

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

Question 26

discriminative stimulus

Answer 26

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)

Question 27

positive reinforcement

Answer 27

increasing behaviors by presenting a pleasurable stimulus. a positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

Question 28

negative reinforcement

Answer 28

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing an aversive stimulus. a negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response

Question 29

primary reinforcer

Answer 29

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

Question 30

conditioned reinforcer

Answer 30

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer

Question 31

reinforcement schedule

Answer 31

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.

Question 32

continuous reinforcement schedule

Answer 32

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

Question 33

partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule

Answer 33

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

Question 34

fixed ratio schedule

Answer 34

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

Question 35

variable ratio schedule

Answer 35

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

Question 36

acquisition

Answer 36

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

Question 37

higher order conditioning

Answer 37

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. for example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone.

Question 38

Robert Rescorla

Answer 38

researched classical conditioning; found subjects learn the predictability of an event through trials (cognitive element). argued that an animal can learn an event's predictability

Question 39

instinctive drift

Answer 39

the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns

Question 40

Ivan Pavlov

Answer 40

father of classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell

Question 41

visual cliff

Answer 41

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

Question 42

zone of proximal development

Answer 42

the zone between what a child can and can't do — it's what a child can do with help

Question 43

crystallized intelligence

Answer 43

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

Question 44

fluid intelligence

Answer 44

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease with age, especially during late adulthood

Question 45

neurocognitive disorders

Answer 45

acquired disorders marked by cognitive deficits; a group/category of mental health disorders that affect cognitive abilities

Question 46

dementia

Answer 46

a generalized, pervasive deterioration of memory and at least one other cognitive function. a cognitive disorder that impairs memory, cognition, and decision-making

Question 47

Alzheimer's disease

Answer 47

a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally, physical functioning. a progressive neurodegenerative disease characterized by cortical atrophy, neuronal death, synapse loss, and accumulation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles

Question 48

behaviorism

Answer 48

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes

Question 49

John B. Watson

Answer 49

founder of behaviorism; searched for laws underlying learning; idea that human emotions and behaviors, though biologically influenced, are mainly a group of conditioned responses; Little Albert experiment

Question 50

classical conditioning

Answer 50

a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrate with Pavlov's classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food)

Question 51

parallel play

Answer 51

a child is next to other children and using similar objects but still engaged in their own activity

Question 52

pretend play

Answer 52

make-believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations, acting as if they were in a situation different from their actual one

Question 53

imaginary audience

Answer 53

the belief of an adolescent that others are constantly focusing attention on them, scrutinizing behaviors, appearance, and the like. imagining what others are thinking about them

Question 54

personal fable

Answer 54

a belief in one's uniqueness and invulnerability, which is an expression of adolescent egocentrism. believing that they are unique and special and what happens to "most people" would never happen to them

Question 55

basic trust versus mistrust

Answer 55

the first of Erikson's eight stages of psychosocial development, between birth and 18 months of age. During this stage, the infant either comes to view other people and themself as trustworthy or comes to develop a fundamental distrust of their environment

Question 56

autonomy versus shame and doubt

Answer 56

the second of Erikson's eight stages of psychosocial development, between the ages of 1½ and 3 years. During this stage, children acquire a degree of self-reliance and self-confidence if allowed to develop at their own pace but may begin to doubt their ability to control themselves and their world if parents are overcritical, overprotective, or inconsistent

Question 57

initiative versus guilt

Answer 57

the third of Erikson's eight stages of psychosocial development, which occurs during the child's 3rd through 5th years. In planning, launching, and initiating fantasy, play, and other activity, the child learns to believe in their ability to successfully pursue goals. However, if these pursuits often fail or are criticized, the child may develop instead a feeling of self-doubt and guilt

Question 58

industry versus inferiority

Answer 58

the fourth of Erikson's eight stages of psychosocial development, occurring from ages 6 to 11 years, during which the child learns to be productive and to accept evaluation of their efforts or becomes discouraged and feels inferior or incompetent

Question 59

identity versus identity confusion

Answer 59

the fifth of Erikson's eight stages of psychosocial development, also known as identity versus role confusion, marked by an identity crisis that occurs during adolescence. During this stage, the individual may experience a psychosocial moratorium, a period of time that permits experimentation with social roles

Question 60

intimacy versus isolation

Answer 60

the sixth of Erikson's eight stages of psychosocial development, which extends from late adolescence through courtship and early family life to early middle age. During this period, individuals must learn to share and care without losing themselves; if they fail, they will feel alone and isolated

Question 61

generativity versus stagnation

Answer 61

the seventh stage of Erikson's eight stages of psychosocial development. Generativity is the positive goal of middle adulthood, interpreted in terms not only of procreation but also of creativity and fulfilling one's full parental and social responsibilities toward the next generation, in contrast to a narrow interest in the self, or self-absorption

Question 62

integrity versus despair

Answer 62

the eighth and final stage of Erikson's eight stages of psychosocial development, which occurs during old age. In this stage, the individual reflects on the life they have lived and may develop either integrity—a sense of satisfaction in having lived a good life and the ability to approach death with equanimity—or despair—a feeling of bitterness about opportunities missed and time wasted, and a dread of approaching death

Question 63

adverse childhood experiences

Answer 63

experiences such as deprivation, abuse, or other traumas, that can slow development, influence long-term stress responses, and negatively impact health and well-being

Question 64

positive childhood experiences

Answer 64

a collection of favorable experiences during childhood, like having supportive family relationships, feeling safe and loved by caregivers, positive peer interactions, involvement in community activities, and a sense of belonging, which can contribute to positive mental health and resilience in adulthood

Question 65

identity status model

Answer 65

the model posits four possible identity statuses that an individual might assume, particularly during adolescence, each characterized by a different level of exploration of and commitment to a specific identity

Question 66

identity achievement status

Answer 66

characterized by evidence of both identity exploration and commitment; this status is related to stable self-esteem and healthy psychological functioning

Question 67

diffusions status

Answer 67

characterized by the lack of both identity exploration and commitment

Question 68

syntax

Answer 68

set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences

Question 69

semantics

Answer 69

the language's set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds

Question 70

overextension

Answer 70

the tendency of very young children to extend the use of a word beyond the scope of its specific meaning, such as by referring to all animals as "doggie"

Question 71

underextension

Answer 71

the incorrect restriction of the use of a word, which is a mistake commonly made by young children acquiring language; for example, a child may believe that the label dog applies only to the family pet

Question 72

microsystem

Answer 72

immediate, direct-contact groups (e.g., home, school, community)

Question 73

mesosystem

Answer 73

relationships between microsystem groups (e.g., parents and peers). the groups and institutions outside the home that influence the child's development and interact with aspects of the microsystem

Question 74

exosystem

Answer 74

environments that indirectly affect a person (e.g., a parent's workplace). societal structures that function largely independently of the individual but nevertheless affect the immediate context within which they develop

Question 75

macrosystem

Answer 75

cultural influences (e.g., values; beliefs; economic and political systems) .most distal to the developing individual and that affects all other systems. It includes the values, traditions, and sociocultural characteristics of the larger society

Question 76

chronosystem

Answer 76

life stage and related events (e.g., moving; economic recession). changes and continuities occurring over time that influence an individual's development

Question 77

separation anxiety

Answer 77

the normal apprehension experienced by a young child when away (or facing the prospect of being away) from the person or people to whom they are attached (particularly parents)

Question 78

solitary play

Answer 78

a child is near others but focused on their own activity

Question 79

foreclosure status

Answer 79

depicted by commitment to an identity that adults have set forth for an individual but by failure to explore different options before that commitment is made

Question 80

moratorium status

Answer 80

characterized by evidence of identity exploration but a lack of commitment

Question 81

conditioned emotional response

Answer 81

any negative emotional response, typically fear or anxiety, that becomes associated with a neutral stimulus as a result of classical conditioning

Question 82

positive punishment

Answer 82

administer an aversive stimulus; a stimulus is added to discourage the behavior

Question 83

negative punishment

Answer 83

withdraw a rewarding stimulus; a stimulus is subtracted to discourage the behavior

Question 84

chaining

Answer 84

an operant conditioning technique in which a complex behavioral sequence is learned. Animals, both human and nonhuman, can be taught to perform relatively elaborate sequences of activities by this method

Question 85

learned helplessness

Answer 85

the hopelessness and passive resignation humans and other animals learn when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

Question 86

Martin Seligman

Answer 86

researcher known for work on learned helplessness and learned optimism as well as positive psychology

Question 87

vicarious conditioning

Answer 87

the conditioning of an animal to perform an act that it observes in a member of the same or a different species

Question 88

adolescent egocentrism

Answer 88

two defining characteristics: the imaginary audience and the personal fable. the feeling of personal uniqueness; that one is special and is or should be the constant focus of others' attention