Unit 3: Urinary, Homeostasis, Male & Female Reproductive Systems Flashcards
(235 cards)
1
Q
2 methods of autoregulation
- List
A
- Myogenic mechanism
- Tubuloglomerular feedback
2
Q
A patient enters a hospital after a motorcycle accident. He complains of mid-back pain. X-rays reveal both rib and pelvic fractures. His emergency room examination includes urinalysis.
What finding from the urinalysis would most likely suggest trauma to the kidneys from the accident, but not to the urinary bladder?
A
Albuminuria & phenylketonuria
3
Q
Accessory glands in male reproductive system
- List & describe
A
- Bulbourethral (Cowper) glands: protects the sperm by neutralizing the acidity of residual urine in the urethra
- Prostate gland: thin milky secretion forms 30% of semen
- Seminal vesicles: forms 60% of semen
4
Q
Mechanisms the body uses to help maintain acid-base balance
- List 3
A
- Buffer systems
- Exhalation of CO2
- Kidney excretion of H+
5
Q
Acid-base imbalances
- Normal pH range
- Describe conditions above & below normal range
A
- Normal pH range of arterial blood 7.35-7.45
- < 7.35 acidosis: depression of synaptic transmission in CNS
- > 7.45 alkalosis: over-excitability of CNS and peripheral nerves
6
Q
Adolescence
- Period of time it occurs
A
- The period from the onset of gonadotropin secretion and reproductive development to when a person attains full adult height
7
Q
After puberty, the vaginal lining goes through metaplasia transforming from simple cuboidal epithelium to _______ epithelium.
A
Stratified squamous
8
Q
At what week is a fetus fully developed?
A
Week 38
9
Q
Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH)
A
- Noncancerous enlargement of the prostate
- Compresses urethra and obstructs flow of urine
- Promotes bladder and kidney infections
10
Q
Blood plasma is filter in the _____
A
Renal copuscle
11
Q
Where & when do mammary glands develop?
A
- Within the breast during pregnancy
- Remains active in the lactating breast
- Atrophies when a woman ceases to nurse
12
Q
Breast cancer
- Frequency
- Where do tumors begin
- Symptoms
- Causes
- Risk factors
A
- 1 out of 8 American women
- Tumors begin with cells from mammary ducts
- may metastasize by lymphatics
- Symptoms may include palpable lump, skin puckering, skin texture and drainage from nipple
- Most breast cancer is nonhereditary
- some stimulated by estrogen
- BRCA1 and BRCA2 (BReast CAncer)
- Risk factors
- aging
- ionizing radiation
- carcinogenic chemicals
- alcohol
- smoking
- fat intake
- 70% lack risk factors
13
Q
Buffer systems
- What do they do?
- What do they typically consist of?
A
- Temporarily bind H+
- Raise pH
- Typically consist of weak acid. Salt of the acid functions as a weak base
14
Q
By what week are either male or female genitalia distinctly formed?
A
Week 12
15
Q
How is the sex of a child determined?
A
- Type of sperm that fertilizes
mother’s egg- X-carrying sperm fertilizes the egg: female
- Y-carrying sperm fertilizes the egg: male
16
Q
Circumcision is a common surgery in which a male has _________ removed from his penis
A
Prepuce (foreskin)
17
Q
Define metabolic waste
A
Waste substance produced by the body
18
Q
Define waste
A
Any substance that is useless to the body or present in excess of the body’s needs
19
Q
Dehydration
- When does it occur
- What does it result in
- What thirst center does it stimulate
A
- Occurs when water loss is greater than gain
- Decrease in volume = increase in osmolarity of body fluids
- Stimulates thirst center in hypothalamus
20
Q
Describe cervical cancer
- When does it typically develop?
- Risk factors
- Where does it usually develop?
A
- Common among women ages 30 to 50
- Smoking, early-age sexual activity, STDs, and human papillomavirus
- Usually begins in epithelial cells of lower cervix
21
Q
Describe meiosis
A
A type of cell division that reduces the number of chromosomes in the parent cell by half and produces four gamete cells
22
Q
Does the vagina have any glands?
A
No
23
Q
Ductus deferens
A
- Spermatic duct
- Peristalsis during orgasm
24
Q
Efferent ductules
A
- Spermatic duct
- 12 small ciliated ducts collecting sperm from rete testes and transporting it to epididymis
25
Ejaculatory duct
* Spermatic duct
* Formed from _ductus deferens_ and _seminal vesicle_ and passing through prostate to empty into urethra
26
What regulates the male reproductive function?
* Gonads
* Hypothalamus
* Pituitary gland
27
What endocrine hormone controls puberty?
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
28
Epididymis
* Spermatic duct
* _Posterior of testis_
* Site of sperm maturation and storage (fertile for 60 days)
* Head, body and tail
29
Epithelium cells of the vagina
* In children
* At puberty
* **Child**: _simple cuboidal_
* **Puberty**: _stratified squamous_
30
Erectile dysfunction
* % of occurrence during 60s and 80s
* 20% of men in 60s
* 50% of those in 80s
31
Exhalation of carbon dioxide (CO2)
* How does it impact pH and fluids
* What is it called
* What type of feedback loop is it
* Increase in CO2 lowers pH of body fluids
* Because H2CO3 can be eliminated by exhaling CO2 it is called a _volatile acid_
* Negative feedback loop
32
Why do the testes reside in the scrotum?
* They have adapted to its cooler environment
* Its temperature must be held at about 35°C because it _cannot produce sperm at core body temperature_ of 37°C
33
External genitalia of females
* Clitoris
* Labia majora
* Labia minora
34
External genitalia of males
* What does it include?
* What does it occupy?
* Where is it bordered by?
* Scrotum and penis
* Occupies the **perineum**
* Bordered by the _pubic symphysis, ischial tuberosities, and coccyx_
35
Extracellular fluid (ECF)
* Describe
* Where is ECF in the body
* Fluid that is outside of the cells (35%)
* 25% is _interstitial fluid_ between cells (where most ECF resides)
* 20% _plasma_ in blood
* 2% in _lymph_, cerebrospinal fluid, synovial fluid, aqueous humor, vitreous body, endolymph, perilymph, and pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal fluids
36
Female reproductive system
* Form & function
* Copulatory organ
* Produces eggs, receives sperm, provides for the union of the gametes, harbors the fetus, and nourishes the offspring
* Females have a **copulatory organ (vagina)** for receiving the sperm
37
Filtration membrane
* List & describe the 3 barriers through which fluid passes
* **Basement membrane**
* **Fenestrated endothelium of glomerular capillaries**
* **Filtration slits**
* **Podocyte** cell extensions **(pedicels)** wrap around the capillaries to form a barrier layer with 30 nm filtration slits
38
Flow of fluid from the point where the glomerular filtrate is formed to the point where urine leaves the body
**glomerular capsule → proximal convoluted tubule → nephron loop → distal convoluted tubule → collecting duct → papillary duct → minor calyx → major calyx → renal pelvis → ureter → urinary bladder → urethra**
39
Formula for ECF lowering pH by releasing H+
* CO2 + H2O ⇢ H2CO3 ⇢ HCO3− + H+
40
Formula for ECF raising pH by binding H+
* CO2 + H2O ⇠ H2CO3 ⇠ HCO3− + H+
41
Function of the uterus
* Expels the fetus
* Harbors fetus
* Source of nutrition
42
Gametes
* What are they?
* What does each gamete do?
* Sex cells
* Male & female **gametes** combine their genes to form a **zygote**
* One gamete has **_motility_:** sperm (spermatozoon)
* Parent with a Y chromosome is male
* Other gamete **_contains nutrients_** for developing embryo: egg (ovum)
* Anyone lacking a Y chromosome is female
* In mammals, female is the parent that provides **a sheltered internal environment** and **prenatal nutrition of the embryo**
43
Where do the gonads develop?
Where do they migrate to?
* Male and female gonads initially develop testosterone high in the _abdominal cavity_ near the kidneys
* Migrate into the _pelvic cavity (ovaries)_ or _scrotum (testes)_
44
Gonads
* When do they develop
* List & describe its 2 ducts
* Begin to develop at 6 weeks
* 2 sets of ducts
* _mesonephric ducts_ develop into male reproductive system; or
* _paramesonephric ducts_ (müllerian ducts) develop into female reproductive tract
45
Gubernaculum
* What is it
* Where is it
* Connective tissue cord that extends from the gonads to the floor of the pelvic cavity
* Passes between the internal and external abdominal oblique muscles into the scrotal swelling
46
How does the body gain water?
* _Ingestion_ of liquids and moist foods (2300mL/day)
* _Metabolic synthesis of water_ during cellular respiration and dehydration synthesis (200mL/day)
47
How does the body lose water?
* List the different ways
* _Evaporation_ from skin (600mL/day)
* _Exhalation_ from lungs (300mL/day)
* _Feces_ (100mL/day)
* _Kidneys_ (1500mL/day)
48
How do the kidneys excrete excess water?
* dilute urine
* excess electrolytes through concentrated urine
49
How does continual exchange of water and solutes occur among internal compartments?
* Diffusion
* Filtration
* Osmosis
* Reabsorption
50
How does the body regulate water & solute _loss_?
* Urine
51
How does the body regulate water _gain_?
* Water intake (how much you drink)
52
How is estrogen secreted before, during, and after pregnancy?
* Before: ovarian follicles
* During: placenta
* After: corpus luteum
53
How is milk ejection (letdown) controlled?
Neuroendocrine reflex
54
How is the uterus positioned in the body?
* Tilts forward over the urinary bladder
55
How is urea formed?
* Proteins ⇢ amino acids ⇢ NH2 removed to form **ammonia**
* liver then converts to urea
56
How many pairs of autosomes do our cells contain?
22 pairs; 44 total autosomes
(chromosomes 1-22)
57
How many pairs of chromosomes do our cells contain?
* 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 total chromosomes)
* All eggs carry the X chromosome
* Males produce half Y-carrying sperm and half X-carrying sperm
* 1 pair of sex chromosomes (XY males: XX females)
58
Identify A
Kidney
59
Identify B
Ureter
60
Identify C
Urinary bladder
61
Identify the clitoris, mons pubis, labia minora, & vagina orifice
62
Identify the following: uterus, uterine tubes, bladder & ovary
63
Infant's suckling stimulates sensory receptors in the nipple, signaling ____ and ____ to release \_\_\_\_
* Hypothalamus
* Posterior pituitary
* Oxytocin
64
Intracellular fluid (ICF)
* Describe
* Fluid that is inside the cells (65%)
* About ⅔ of body fluid
65
Kidney infections & trauma
* List & describe
* **Hematuria:** presence of blood in the urine
* **Proteinuria (albuminuria):** presence of protein in urine
* Note
* Distance runners and swimmers often experience temporary proteinuria or hematuria
* Prolonged, strenuous exercise greatly reduces profusion of kidney
* Glomerulus deteriorates under prolonged hypoxia
66
How does blood enter and leave the kidney structure?
* Enters the kidney through the _renal artery_
* Leaves through the _renal vein_
67
List & describe layers of the uterine wall
* **Endometrium:** inside lining
* **site of attachment** of the embryo
* forms the **maternal part of the placenta** from which the fetus is nourished
* **Myometrium:** middle muscular layer
* **Perimetrium:** external serosa layer
68
List & describe endometrium cells
* Simple _columnar epithelium_ with thick layer compound tubular glands
* _stratum functionalis_: superficial, shed each period
* _stratum basalis_: deep layer, regenerates a new stratum functionalis with each menstrual cycle
69
List & describe the 3 protective connective tissue coverings of the kidneys?
* **Fibrous capsule:** encloses kidney protecting it from trauma and infection
* **Perirenal fat capsule:** cushions kidney and holds it into place
* **Renal fascia:** binds it to abdominal wall (deep to parietal peritoneum)
70
List & describe the cells in the distal convoluted tubule (DCT) and collecting duct
* **Intercalated cells**
* Involved in acid–base balance by secreting H+ into tubule lumen and reabsorbing K+
* **Principal cells**
* Most numerous
* Have receptors for hormones
* Involved in salt and water balance
71
List & describe the major portions of the uterine fallopian tubes
* **Ampulla:** middle and longest part (most important part!)
* **Fimbriae:** feathery projections on infundibulum
* **Infundibulum:** flared, trumpet-shaped distal (ovarian) end
* **Isthmus:** narrower end toward uterus
* **Mesosalpinx:** the superior portion of the broad ligament that enfolds uterine tube
72
List the spermatic ducts
* Ductus deferens
* Efferent ductules
* Ejaculatory duct
* Epididymis
73
List and describe the spermatozoon regions
* **Midpiece**: contains mitochondria around axoneme of the flagella (produce ATP for flagellar movement)
* **Principal piece**: axoneme surrounded by fibers
* **Endpiece**: very narrow tip of flagella
74
List and describe the stages of labor
* **Dilation**: longest stage
* **Expulsion**: active labor
* **Placental**: baby has arrived, but still bearing down to remove placenta
75
List internal genitalia of females
* Ovaries
* Uterine tubes
* Uterus
* Vagina
76
List the 3 regions of the uterus
* Body
* Cervix
* Fundus
77
List the 3 types of homeostatic balance
* Acid-bace balance
* Electrolyte balance
* Water balance
78
List the cations & anions of ECF & ICF
* **ECF**
* cation = Na+
* anion = Cl-
* **ICF**
* cation = K+
* anions = proteins and phosphates (HPO42-)
79
List the hormones with the strongest influence on pregnancy
* Estrogen
* Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) - used for pregnancy tests
* Human chorionic somatomammotropin (HCS)
* Progesterone
80
List the phases of meiosis (in order)
* Interphase
* Prophase
* Metaphase
* Anaphase
* Telophase
* Cytokenisis
81
List the systems that maintain homeostatic balances
* cardiovascular
* digestive
* endocrine
* integumentary
* lymphatic
* nervous
* respiratory
* urinary
82
Magnesium
* Describe
* Constitution
* 2nd most common intracellular cation
* _Cofactor_ for certain enzymes and Na+/K+ pump
* Essential for normal _neuromuscular_ activity, _synaptic transmission_, and _myocardial_ function
* Secretion of _parathyroid hormone_ depends on Mg2+
* Regulated in _blood plasma_ by varying rate excreted in urine
* Constitution
* **54%** is part of bone as magnesium salts
* **46%** as Mg2+ in ICF (45%) or ECF (1%)
83
Male climacteric (menopause)
* What causes it?
* When?
* Rise in follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and lutenizing hormone (LH) secretion after age 50 produces male climacteric (menopause)
* mood changes, hot flashes and “illusions of suffocation”
84
Male reproductive system
* Function
* Copulatory organ
* Serves to produce sperm and introduce them into the female body
* Males have a **copulatory organ (penis)** for introducing their gametes into the female reproductive tract
85
What is the end result of meiosis?
* Produces 4 gametes (haploid cells), each with only half the DNA of the diploid body cells
* Combining male and female gametes with half the genetic material produces an embryo with the same number of chromosomes as each of the parents
* Sometimes called **reduction division**
86
Meiosis I: Anaphase I
* Homologous chromosomes separate and migrate to opposite poles of the cell
87
Meiosis I: Telophase I
* New nuclear envelopes form around chromosomes
* Cell undergoes cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis)
* Each cell is now haploid
88
Meiosis II: Anaphase II
* Centromeres divide
* Sister chromatids migrate to opposite poles of cell
* Each chromatid now constitutes a single-stranded chromosome
89
Meiosis II: Metaphase II
* Chromosomes align on equatorial plane
90
Meiosis II: Prophase II
* Nuclear envelopes disintegrate again
* Chromosomes still consist of 2 chromatids
* New spindle forms
91
Meiosis II: Telophase II
* New nuclear envelopes form around chromosomes
* Chromosomes uncoil and become less visible
* Cytoplasm divides
92
Meiosis I: Metaphase I
* Tetrads align on equatorial plane of cell with centromeres attached to spindle fibers
93
Meiosis I: Early & Mid-to-Late Prophase
* **Early prophase 1**
* _Chromatin condenses_ to form visible chromosomes
* Each chromosome has 2 chromatids joined by a _centromere_
* **Mid-to-late prophase I**
* Homologous chromosomes _form pairs (tetrads)_
* Chromatids often break and exchange segments (_crossing-over_)
* Centrioles produce _spindle fibers_
* _Nuclear envelope disintegrates_
94
Menarche
* First menstrual period
* requires at least 17% body fat in teenagers, 22% in adults
* leptin stimulates gonadotropin secretion
* improved nutrition (increased body fat) has lowered avg age of onset to 12
95
Metabolic acidosis
* Describe
* Cause
* Counter-measures
* **Describe**
* Abnormally _low_ HCO3 in systemic arterial blood
* Severe _diarrhea_ or _renal dysfunction_
* **Cause**
* Failure of kidneys to excrete H+ from metabolism of dietary proteins
* **Counter-measures**
* Hyperventilation
* Sodium bicarbonate
96
Metabolic alkalosis
* Describe
* Cause
* Counter-measures
* **Describe**
* Abnormally _high_ HCO3- in systemic arterial blood
* _Nonrespiratory loss of acid_: vomiting of acidic stomach contents, gastric suctioning
* Severe dehydration
* Deals with _kidneys_
* **Cause**
* Alkaline drugs (antacids)
* Use of diuretics
* **Counter-measures**
* Hypoventilation
* K+ and electrolytes
97
Minor & major calyx
* Minor: Cup that nestles the papilla of each pyramid; _collects urine_
* Major: Convergence of two or three minor calyces
98
Mitosis
* Describe
* Process where a single cell divides into two identical daughter cells (cell division)
99
Most of the body's water is in\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Intracellular fluid (ICF)
100
Osmosis from one fluid compartment to another is determined by \_\_\_\_\_
The relative concentration of solutes in each compartment
101
Primary & secondary sex organs
* Describe
* Examples of each
* **Primary sex organs** (gonads)
* Produce gametes (testes or ovaries)
* **Secondary sex organs**
* Organs other than the gonads that are necessary for reproduction
* _Male_
* system of ducts, glands
* penis delivers sperm cells
* _Female_
* uterine tubes
* uterus
* vagina receive sperm and harbor developing fetus
102
Primary sex organs of females
Ovaries
103
Prostate cancer
* 2nd most common cancer in men after lung cancer
* Tumors tend to be near the periphery of the gland where they do not obstruct urine flow
* **Digital rectal exam (DRE):** palpated through rectal wall to check for tumors
* Diagnosed from elevated levels of **serine protease (PSA)** and **acid phosphatase** in the blood
104
Pubarche
* Growth of pubic & axillary hair
* Growth of apocrine & sebaceous glands
105
Reason that contributes to someone having a too low GFR
* Wastes reabsorbed in body
* _Azotemia_ may occur
106
Regions of the urethra
1. Membranous
2. Prostatic
3. Spongy (penile) urethra
107
Why would someone have too high of GFR?
* Why
* Impact
* Fluid flows through the _renal tubules_ too rapidly for them to reabsorb the usual amount of water and solutes
* Urine output rises
* Chance of dehydration and electrolyte depletion
108
Which type of renal autoregulation would stabilize the GFR based on the tendency of smooth muscle to contract when stretched?
Myogenic mechanism
109
Reproductive system dormancy
* Remains dormant for several years after birth
* 10 to 12 years in most boys
* 8 to 10 years in most girls
110
Requirements for sperm motility
* **Elevated pH** and an **energy source**
* Prostatic fluid buffers vaginal acidity from pH 3.5 to 7.5
* Seminal vesicles provide fructose and other sugars to the mitochondria
111
Respiratory acidosis
* What is it
* What causes it
* Examples
* Any condition that decreases movement of CO2 out
* Caused by _changes in partial pressure of CO_2 in systemic arterial blood
* Examples: emphysema, pulmonary edema, airway obstruction
112
Respiratory alkalosis
* What is it
* Results in…
* Part of the body does it deal with
* Abnormally low PCO2 in systemic arterial blood
* Results in _hyperventilation due to oxygen deficiency_ from high altitude or pulmonary disease, stroke or severe anxiety
* Deals with _lungs_
113
Scrotum
* Describe its form
* List & describe its components
* Pouch of skin, muscle, and fibrous connective tissue containing the testes
* **Internal median septum** divides scrotum into right and left compartments
* **Left testicle** usually descends lower than the right so the two are not compressed against each other
* **Perineal raphe:** medial seam located on the scrotum extending anteriorly along ventral side of penis and posteriorly to anus
* **Skin** has sebaceous glands, sparse hair, rich sensory innervation, somewhat darker pigmentation than skin elsewhere
114
Secondary sex characteristics
* General description
* Examples for both sexes, males & females
* Features that further distinguish the sexes and play a role in mate attraction
* Develop at puberty to attract a mate
* _Both sexes_: Pubic and axillary hair and their associated scent glands, and the pitch of the voice
* _Male_: Facial hair, coarse and visible hair on the torso and limbs, relatively muscular physique
* _Female_: Distribution of body fat, breast enlargement, and relatively hairless appearance of the skin
115
Secondary sex organs of females
All non-ovary internal organs and external genitalia
116
Semen
* Fluid expelled during orgasm
* Normal **sperm count** 50 to 120 million/mL
* _Infertility_ = \< 20 to 25 million/mL
117
Skin over penis shaft
* Loosely attached; allows expansion
* Extends over glans as **prepuce (foreskin)**
* Removed by **circumcision**
118
Smegma
* Waxy secretion produced by the sebaceous glands in the glans and facing surface of the prepuce
119
Spermatic cord
* What does it contain?
* Blood and lymphatic vessels
* Ductus deferens
* Testicular nerve
120
SRY gene
* Describe
* What does it code for in males?
* Sex-determining region of Y gene
* In males, codes for a _protein that causes development of testes_
* secrete testosterone around 8/9 weeks
* secrete müllerian-inhibiting factor; degenerates paramesonephric ducts
121
Stages of urine formation
1. **Glomerular _filtration_**. Creates a plasma like filtrate of the blood
2. **Tubular _reabsorption_**. Removes useful solutes from the filtrate, returns them to the blood
3. **Tubular _secretion_**. Removes additional wastes from the blood, adds them to the filtrate
4. **_Water conservation_**. Removes water from the urine & returns it to blood; concentrates wastes
122
T/F
Ectopic pregnancy is synonymous with tubal pregnancy
True
123
T/F
Estrogen levels are always high in pregnancy
True
124
T/F
Female development occurs in absence of androgen hormones (ie testosterone)
True
125
T/F
If estrogen was the hormone that directed the female development, all fetuses would be feminized
True
126
T/F
In the female fetus, the absence of testosterone results in the development of the external genitalia into clitoris, labia minora, and labia majora
True
127
T/F
Kidneys can help raise blood pH
True
128
T/F
Major calyces is a cup that nestles the papilla of each pyramid; collects it urine
False
It is the minor calyx that does this
129
T/F
Mesonephric (wolffian) duct develops into the female reproductive tract
False
130
T/F
The minor calyx is formed by convergence of two or three minor calyces
False
*It is the major calyces that are formed by convergence of 2 or 3 minor calyces*
131
T/F
Normally, cells neither shrink or swell. Explain.
* True
* Intracellular and interstitial fluids have the same osmolarity
* _Increasing_ osmolarity of interstitial fluid draws water out of cells and cells shrink
* _Decreasing_ osmolarity of interstitial fluid causes cells to swell
132
T/F
Respiratory acidosis/alkalosis results from changes in partial pressure of CO2 in systemic arterial blood
True
133
T/F
STDs have an **incubation period** in which the pathogen multiplies with no symptoms and a **communicable period** in which the disease can be transmitted to others
True
134
T/F
Symptomless carriers of STDs exist
True
135
T/F
The bulbourethral (Cowper's) gland protects the sperm by neutralizing the alkalinity of residual urine in the urethra
False
136
T/F
The intake of water and electrolytes is rarely proportional
True
137
T/F
The kidneys receive 21% of the cardiac output
True
138
T/F
The kidneys secrete antidiuretic hormone (ADH) in response to dehydration
False
*The pituitary secretes antidiuretic hormone (ADH)*
139
T/F
The male urethra is shared by the reproductive & urinary systems
True
140
T/F
The renal artery arises from the thoracic aorta
False
*It arises from the abdominal aorta*
141
T/F
The right kidney is positioned lower on the abdominal wall because of the position of the liver
True
142
T/F
The scrotum contains the testes and spermatic cords
True
143
T/F
The thick segment of the Nephron loop (loop of Henle) is made of simple cuboidal epithelium and is heavily engaged in the active transport of salts and have many mitochondria
True
144
T/F
The thin segment of the Nephron loop (loop of Henle) is made of simple squamous epithelium and is very permeable to water
True
145
T/F
The vagina has no glands but it is moistened by mucus from glands in the cervical canal
True
146
T/F
Urea is the main component of urine
False
147
Testes cells & tubules
* List & describe
* **Interstitial (Leydig) cells:** produce testosterone
* **Seminiferous tubules**
* **Sustentacular (Sertoli) cells** in between germ cells: protect the germ cells, and promote their development
148
Testes
* Function
* Produce **sex hormones** and **sperm**
149
Testicular nerves connect to spinal cord segments _____ and \_\_\_\_\_
T10 and T11
150
Testicular thermoregulation mechanisms
* **Cremaster muscle:** _pulls_ testes close to body
* **Dartos muscle:** _wrinkles_ skin reducing surface area of scrotum; lifts it upwards
* **Pampiniform plexus:** _veins_ ascending near testicular artery; countercurrent heat exchanger cools arterial blood entering testis
151
The average person has approx ____ nephrons per kidney
1.0 - 1.2 million
152
The connective tissue layer protecting the kidney and assisting in staving off infection is known as the \_\_\_\_\_\_
Fibrous capsule
153
Thelarche
* Development of breasts
154
Term used when less than 500 mL of urine is voided in a day
Oliguria
155
Term used when 1 to 2 liters of urine is voided in a day
Normal
156
Term used when 0 - 100 mL of urine is voided in a day
Anuria
157
Term used when 2 or more liters of urine is voided in a day
Polyuria
158
There are two convoluted tubules that make up a nephron, the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) and distal convoluted tubule (DCT).
Which one is made of simple cuboidal epithelium with _prominent microvilli_ for majority of absorption?
PCT
159
There are two convoluted tubules that make up a nephron, the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) and distal convoluted tubule (DCT).
Which one is made of cuboidal epithelium _without microvilli_?
DCT
160
There are two convoluted tubules that make up a nephron, the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) and distal convoluted tubule (DCT).
Which one is at the end of the nephron?
DCT
161
There are two convoluted tubules that make up a nephron, the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) and distal convoluted tubule (DCT).
Which one arises from the glomerular capsule?
PCT
162
There are two convoluted tubules that make up a nephron, the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) and distal convoluted tubule (DCT).
Which one is short and less coiled?
DCT
163
There are two convoluted tubules that make up a nephron, the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) and distal convoluted tubule (DCT).
Which one is the longest and most coiled region?
PCT
164
Three hormones that regulate renal Na+ and Cl- reabsorption
* List & describe
* **Angiotensin II & aldosterone**
* promote urinary Na+ and Cl- reabsorption of (and water by osmosis) when dehydrated
* **Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)**
* promotes excretion of Na+ and Cl- followed by water excretion to decrease blood volume
165
Trace the blood flow from the renal artery into the renal cortex (capillaries)
aorta → renal a. → arcuate a. → afferent a.
(VERIFY)
166
Trace the blood flow from the renal cortex (capillaries) to the renal vein
efferent → arcuate v. → interlobular v. → renal v. → inferior vena cava
(VERIFY)
167
Tunica albuginea
White fibrous capsule on testes and ovaries
168
Ureters
* Location & description
* Retroperitoneal, muscular tube that extends from the **kidney to the urinary bladder**
* About 25 cm long
* Passes posterior to bladder and enters it from below
* Flap of mucosa acts as a valve into bladder
* Keeps urine from backing up in the ureter when bladder contracts
169
What is uric acid a product of?
Nucleic acid catabolism
170
Urine is produced in three phases. The secretion and absorption phase moves fluid from the proximal convoluted tubule through the distal convoluted tubule. During this phase, substances have been removed or added by tubular cells.
What is the fluid in this phase know as?
Tubular fluid
171
Water intoxication
* Describe
* What can it lead to?
* Drinking water faster than the kidneys can excrete it
* Can lead to convulsions, coma, or death
172
What 3 structures help the penis become erect and then flacid?
* **Dorsal vein**: drains penis of blood
* **Dorsal artery**: adds girth
* **Deep artery**: brings blood into erectile tissue to give girth to the penis
173
What are changes in osmolarity most often the result of?
* Changes in Na+ concentration
174
What are the 4 general functions of electrolytes?
* Control _osmosis_ of water between body fluid compartments
* Help maintain the _acid-base balance_
* Carry _electrical current_
* Serve as _cofactors_
175
What are the functions of the kidneys?
* Help control _blood pressure_
* Regulating _osmolality_ of body fluid
* Synthesizing _vitamin D_ (contributing to calcium homeostasis)
* Cleans _waste_ FROM the bloodstream
176
What are the functions of the urinary system?
* regulate _blood volume_ and _pressure_
* final step in synthesizing hormone, _calcitriol_, which contributes to calcium homeostasis
* secrete _erythropoietin_, which stimulates the production of red blood cells
* _gluconeogenesis_ from amino acids in extreme starvation
* regulate the _osmolarity_ of bodily fluids
* collaborate with the lungs to regulate the _PCO_2 _and acid–base balance_ of body fluids
* secrete _renin_ to control BP and electrolyte balance
* eliminate _waste_
* regulate the amount of _water_ and _solutes_ eliminated
177
What are the organs of the urinary system?
* 2 kidneys
* 2 ureters
* urinary bladder
* urethra
178
What are the two forms of cell division?
1. Mitosis
2. Meiosis
179
What awakens the reproductive system, leading to the onset of puberty?
Surge of _pituitary gonadotropins_
180
What differentiates the female sex?
* No testosterone or müllerian-inhibiting factor
* Paramesonephric duct
181
What dissolves estrogen
Oxytocin
182
What do non-lactating breasts mostly consist of?
* Adipose tissue
* Collagenous tissue
183
What does corpus luteum secrete?
Progesterone and estrogen
184
What does the female genitalia occupy?
Perineum
185
What does the _genital tubercle_ become in males & females?
* Head (glans) of the penis
* Glans clitoris
186
What does the _labioscrotal folds_ become in males & females?
* Scrotum
* Labia majora
187
What does the _urogenital folds_ become in males & females?
* Penis
* Labia minora
188
What forms the blood-testis barrier?
_Tight junctions_ between and _basement membrane_ under _sustentacular cells_
189
What forms the hymen?
Mucosal folds
190
What forms the inner layer of the glomerular capsule and wraps around the capillaries of the glomerulus?
Podocytes
191
What hormone regulates water loss?
* Identify
* How does it do this?
* Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): aka _vasopressin_
* Produced by _hypothalamus_
* Promotes insertion of aquaporin-2 into principal cells of collecting duct
* Permeability to water increases
* Produces _concentrated urine_
192
What hormones does GnRH produce & what do they do?
* **Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH):** develops eggs
* **Luteinizing hormone (LH):** ovulation
193
What hormones strongly influence pregnancy and are secreted by the placenta?
* Estrogen
* Human chorionic gonadotripin (HCG)
* Human chorionic somatommotropin (HCS)
* Progesterone
194
What is a bicarbonate buffer system?
A solution of carbonic acid and bicarbonate ions
195
What is aldosterone?
* What is it
* What is it secreted by
* When is it secreted
* What does it mimic
* Salt-retaining hormone
* Secreted by the _adrenal cortex_
* When blood Na+ concentration falls; or
* When K+ concentration rises; or
* There is a drop in blood pressure **→** renin released **→** angiotensin II formation **→** stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone
* Mimics _estrogen_
196
What is an important source for the embryo until the placenta is formed, and if removed too soon a woman will undergo a spontaneous abortion or miscarry?
Corpus luteum
197
What is human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) secreted by?
* Blastocyst and placenta
198
What is meant by homologous structures?
* Male and female organs that develop from the same embryonic structure
199
What is the final product of meiosis II?
* 4 haploid cells with single-stranded chromosomes
200
What is the formula for carbonic acid and bicarbonate ions?
CO2 + H2O *⟺* H2CO3 *⟺* HCO3− + H+
201
What is the glomerulus in the kidney responsible for?
Capillary bed responsible for glomerular filtration
202
What is the homologous structure to the _cowper's gland_?
Bartholin's gland
203
What is the homologous structure to the _foreskin of the penis_?
Clitoral hood
204
What is the homologous structure to the _penis_?
Clitoris
205
What is the homologous structure to the _scrotum_?
Labia majora
206
What is the homologous structure to the _skin shaft of penis_?
Labia minora
207
What is the homologous structure to the _testis_?
Ovary
208
What is the largest single component of the body & how much total body mass does it constitute?
* Water
* 45 - 75% of total body mass
209
What is the main factor that determines body fluid osmolarity?
* Urinary water loss
210
What is the main factor that determines body fluid volume?
* Extent of urinary salt (NaCl) loss
* Water follows salt
* Too much salt = water stays in body
* Lose salt = lose water
211
What kind of cell has receptors for hormones?
Principal cells
212
What kind of cell secretes H+ into lumen and reabsorbs K+?
Intercalated cells
213
What kind of cell is involved in acid-base balance?
Intercalated cells
214
What kind of cell is involved in salt and water balance?
Principal cells
215
What lubricates the vagina?
* Transduction
* Serous fluid through its walls and mucus from the cervical gland above it
* “vaginal sweating"
216
What has a major role in keeping K+ high inside cells and Na+ high outside of cells?
* Na+/K+ pumps
* For every 3 Na+, 2 K+ move
217
What position is the fetus in to prepare for birth?
Vertex
218
What produces an erection?
* Parasympathetic signals produce an erection with direct stimulation of penis or perineal organs
219
What separates ICF from interstitial fluid?
* Plasma membranes
220
What separates interstitial fluid from plasma?
* Blood vessel walls
221
What triggers puberty?
* Rising levels of GnRH
222
When do ions form in the body?
When electrolytes dissolve and dissociate
223
When does testosterone secretion peak & decline?
* Peak secretion at 7 mg/day at age 20
* Declines to 1/5 of that by age 80
* Decline in the number and activity of interstitial cells (testosterone) and sustentacular cells (inhibin)
224
When does the follicular phase (of the ovarian cycle) occur?
From the beginning of menstruation until ovulation
225
Where do ovaries receive blood from?
* Ovarian artery (equivalent to testicular artery in male)
* Ovarian branch of the uterine artery
226
Where does blood leave the testes through and converge to form what?
* Leaves through the _pampiniform plexus_
* Converges to form the _testicular veins_
227
Where does the right and left testicular veins drain to?
* Right drains to the inferior vena cava
* Left drains into the left renal vein
228
Where does the uterine artery arise from?
Internal iliac artery
229
Where would fluid accumulate to cause edema?
Tissue (interstitial) fluid
230
Which function(s) does the urinary system perform to maintain the internal environment?
* Excretory
* Regulatory
* Secretory
231
List the organ systems that excrete waste
* Digestive
* Integumentary
* Respiratory
* Urinary
232
Why do the testes reside in the scrotum?
* They have adapted to the scrotum's cooler environment
* Cannot produce sperm at core body temperature of 37°C
* Temperature must be held at about 35°C
233
Women have a tendency to retain water during part of the menstrual cycle because estrogen mimics the action of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_?
Aldosterone
234
Zygote
* Describe
* Fertilized egg
* A combination of both parents genes
235
What develops and secretes estrogen and progesterone?
Follicles
