Week 14 Flashcards
(120 cards)
1
Q
erythropoiesis
A
making of red blood cells
2
Q
where are red blood cells made?
A
bone marrow
3
Q
how often are new red blood cells made?
A
2-3 million per second
4
Q
what is needed to make red blood cells?
A
iron, vitamin B12, folic acid, erythropoietin
5
Q
why is iron needed for RBCs?
A
needed to form hemoglobin
6
Q
why is vitamin B12 needed for RBCs?
A
form hemoglobin and “squishy” nature of RBCs
7
Q
why is folic acid needed to make RBCs
A
“squishy” nature of RBCs
8
Q
why is erythropoietin (EPO) needed for RBCs?
A
endocrine that tells bone marrow to make RBCs
9
Q
what detects the need for and releases EPO?
A
kidneys
9
Q
where are RBCs removed?
A
spleen and liver
10
Q
what does the spleen do with RBCs?
A
remove RBCs and recycle them
11
Q
what is the product of RBC (specifically hemoglobin) recycling?
A
bilirubin
12
Q
what is bilirubin?
A
yellow toxic compound that is removed via urine, also colors plasma yellow
13
Q
anemia
A
decreased oxygen carrying capacity
14
Q
what are some causes of anemia?
A
reduced # of RBCs or malfunctioning hemoglobin
15
Q
nutritional anemia
A
iron deficiency
16
Q
pernicious anemia
A
vitamin B12 absorption issues, solved with B12 shots
17
Q
aplastic anemia
A
bone marrow problem, issue producing RBCs
18
Q
renal anemia
A
EPO problem, not stimulating bone marrow
19
Q
hemorrhagic anemia
A
due to RBC loss
20
Q
hemolytic anemia
A
RBCs are destroyed in circulation
21
Q
how does hemolytic anemia occur?
A
spleen and liver remove too much, pathogens damage RBCs or extreme excercise
22
Q
sickle cell anemia
A
hemoglobin is altered, RBC shape is altered
23
Q
how does sickle cell anemia occur?
A
genetic issue, RBCs have trouble moving through capillaries
24
polycythemia
too many RBCs in the body, increased oxygen carrying capacity, blood is too viscous
25
what causes polycythemia?
increased EPO, hyperresponsiveness to EPO, chronically low O2,
26
why does increased EPO cause polycythemia?
increased number of RBCs produced
27
why does higher responsiveness to EPO cause polycythemia?
receptors in bone marrow are changed, increased production
28
what can cause chronically low O2?
high altitude or smoking
29
what are the roles of the respiratory system?
interact with the environment, regulate blood pH, enable speech, gas exchange, and microbe defense
30
what critical equation is involved with regulation of blood pH?
#3
31
what critical equation is gas exchange and air pressure dependent on?
#4 (PV = nRT)
32
what variable of equation #4 is constant when discussing gas exchange?
T
33
what gases are typically present in the air we breathe?
79% N, little CO2 and H2O
34
what is the partial pressure of O2?
160 mmHg (~21%)
35
what is the partial pressure of CO2?
0.3 mmHg
36
what is the diffusion of gas based on?
partial pressure gradients
37
can gases move from air to liquids?
yes
38
where does gas move?
high partial pressure to low partial pressure
39
what are the components of the conducting zone?
larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles
40
what is the goal of the conducting zone?
decrease air resistance
41
is there diffusion in the conducting zone?
no
42
what is the purpose of cilia and mucus?
remove unwanted components from air
43
what is the conducting zone made of?
smooth muscle
44
what are the components of the respiratory zone?
respiratory/terminal bronchioles
45
what are the characteristics of the respiratory/terminal bronchioles
very small, some exchange
46
alveolar ducts
"hallway" to the alveoli
47
alveoli
site of gas exchange, large surface area
48
what are the characteristics of the respiratory zone?
maximize diffusion, increase surface area, decreased wall thickness
49
alveoli type I
thin, gas exchange
50
alveoli type II
surfactant, keeps alveoli open and helps with surface area
51
thoracic cavity limits
ribs and diaphragm
52
contents of the thoracic cavity
lungs and heart
53
what controls the size of the thoracic cavity?
intercostals and diaphragm (skeletal muscle)
54
pleural sac
two walls, "water filled balloon"
55
parietal pleura
outside layer
56
visceral pleura
organ- side layer
57
how does the pleura move with the lungs during inhalation/exhalation?
hydrogen bonding between the two layers, fluid transfers the movement
58
what happens when the pleura is punctured?
pneumothorax, collapsed lung
59
why does the lung collapse when the pleura is punctured?
damage to sac, lose hydrogen water connections, lung detached, and can't inflate/deflate
60
can O2 dissolve in blood
yes, but poorly, O2 is nonpolar and blood is polar
61
how much O2 is dissolved in the blood?
<1%
62
how does O2 travel in the blood?
reversibly bound to hemoglobin, 99%
63
hemoglobin
4 identical subunits, 4 spots for oxygen to bind
64
how does O2 bind to hemoglobin?
iron shares e- with O2
65
how does O2 have cooperativity between subunits?
O2 binds, shape change, and affinity increase in other subunits, etc.
O2 unbinds, shape change, decreased affinity in other subunits, etc.
66
what are the factors that affect affinity for O2?
CO2, H+, T, DPG, CO
67
how does CO2 affect affinity?
Hb holds CO2, decreased affinity for O2, O2 is released from Hb
68
how does H+ affect affinity?
pH decreases, affinity for O2 decreases, O2 released
69
how does temperature affect affinity?
temp increases, affinity for O2 decreases, O2 unbinds
70
what is DPG?
created in the first step of glycolysis
71
how does DPG affect affinity?
increased DPG, decreased affinity for O2, unbinds
72
how does CO affect affinity?
competitor with O2, has higher affinity to Hb than O2
73
Hb saturation curve
direct relationship, directly dependent on partial pressure of O2
74
venous reserve
returning O2, only 25% used
75
is partial pressure of O2 = 0 possible?
yes in cells, no in blood
76
what happens when there is 0 partial pressure of O2 in blood and not 0 in cells?
oxygen moves from cells to blood, no O2 in cells = dead
77
is CO2 more soluble than O2?
yes (~10% vs ~1%)
78
how much CO2 is carried by Hb?
~30%
79
where is the other 60% of CO2?
converted to bicarbonate (eq. 3)
80
how is plasma a buffer system?
Hb and albumin (plasma protein) remove H+, more bicarbonate is produced etc.
81
why is venous pH < arterial pH
venous blood has more bicarbonate
82
how is bicarbonate removed from the body?
converts to CO2 and exhaled
83
what controls ventilation?
respiratory rhythm generator (RRG) in the brain stem (medulla)
84
what inputs does the RRG recieve?
pacemaker potentials (baseline), chemoreceptors (O2, CO2, etc.), pulmonary stretch receptors (expansion of lungs)
85
how does the thoracic cavity expand?
intercostals and diaphragm are stimulated, muscles contract and ribs are expanded and diaphragm moves down
86
what happens when the thoracic cavity expands?
pressure is decreased, air moves from high (outside) to low
87
how do we exhale?
no stimulation of intercostals and diaphragm, the muscles relax, exhale
88
what happens when the thoracic cavity contracts?
pressure is high, air moves from high to low pressure, exhale
89
what controls the amount of air that is inhaled?
duration/length of stimulation
90
what happens if you inhale too much?
pulmonary stretch receptors activate, inhibit motor neurons, instant expiration
91
can you inhibit the muscles of the intercostals and diaphragm?
no only the neurons that innervate them
92
how does the partial pressure of O2 influence ventilation rate?
insensitive until ~60mmHg, not responsive to bound O2
93
how does the partial pressure of CO2 influence ventilation rate?
sensitive to small changes, no VR at high levels (CO2 kills neurons controlling VR)
94
how does the H+ influence ventilation rate?
H+ to HCO3 to CO2 to breathe out
95
what does anaerobic excercise lead to?
lactic acid build up, metabolic acidosis
96
why do we vomit?
metabolic alkalosis, replacing stomach acid lowers blood pH
97
hypoventilation
increased arterial partial pressure of CO2, increased H+, respiratory acidosis
98
what does hypoventilation/respiratory acidosis cause?
protein issues and decreased O2 on Hb
99
hyperventilation
decreased arterial partial pressure of CO2, decreased H+, respiratory alkalosis,
100
what does hyperventilation/respiratory alkalosis cause?
protein issues and decreased O2 on Hb
101
why do people that are hyperventilating breathe in a bag?
breathe in more CO2
102
hypoxia
O2 deficiency in tissues
103
hypoxic hypoxia
insufficient O2 intake, air can get from mouth to alveoli, arterial partial pressure of O2 drops
104
anemic hypoxia
partial pressure of O2 normal, O2 transfer issues in blood/Hb-O2 insufficient
105
ischemic hypoxia
insufficient blood floe to deliver O2
106
histoxic hypoxia
tissues unable to use O2, mitochondria issue
107
endocrine pathway for reproductive system
gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) -> follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) -> gonads
108
gonads
testis or ovary
109
what is the first step to producing gametes?
release of sex endocrines (E3s)
110
what is the second step to producing gametes?
form haploid cells (N=23) via meiosis (2 divisons)
111
how do males do meiosis?
always new gametes created
112
how do females do meiosis?
stopped before first division at birth, 1st division at ovulation, 2nd division just before fertilization
113
what classifies a gamete in a female?
cell that meets a sperm, very small number
114
how long is the ovarian cycle?
28 days
115
how long is the follicular phase?
12-14 days
116
what happens during the follicular phase?
loss of wall, estrogen from follicle stimulates rebuilding wall
117
how long is the luteal phase?
14 days (post ovulation)
118
what happens during the luteal phase?
estrogen and progesterone from the corpus luteum prepare the wall, corpus luteum dies (day 10)
119
what happens after the luteal phase?
wall degenerates (part of the next cycle)
