What is historical materialism according to Marx?
The idea that material conditions (work, labour, tools, economy) shape society and human life — not ideas or “spirit.”
Relations of production
The relationships between people in producing goods — who owns, who works, and how power is divided (e.g. factory owner vs. worker).
Productive Forces
Elements needed for production: manual labour, tools, machinery, raw materials, extraction, transport.
Modes of Production
Productive Forces + Relations of Production
Superstructure
Institutions reinforce/naturalize class relations: politics, morality, education, law, culture, media, banking.
Schools teach discipline and obedience, preparing students to become workers
base vs superstructure in Marx’s theory?
Base: The economy — how goods are produced and who controls production.
Superstructure: Institutions (laws, media, religion, education) that reinforce the base and make it seem natural.
Fast-Food Industry
Base (economic foundation):
- Restaurants (factories of food)
- Workers making burgers and fries
- Owners (like McDonald’s) who control production and profit
Superstructure:
- Ads (media): make fast food seem fun, affordable, and family-friendly.
- Education: schools might promote “hard work = success,” encouraging people to work for companies.
- Government/laws: protect company profits, not worker wages (e.g., low minimum wage laws).
What is “surplus value” in capitalism?
The extra value workers create beyond what they’re paid — taken as profit by the capitalist.
You make $1000 worth of products in a week but only get paid $500.
The extra $500 = surplus value (profit) for the owner.
What does commodification mean in Marx’s theory?
Turning things — including people’s work or time — into products that can be bought and sold.
Selling your labour for wages, or turning education and art into profit-driven industries
COMMODIFICATION
Use value
What something is actually good for (e.g. a coat keeps you warm).
COMMODIFICATION
Exchange value
How much it sells for (e.g. a brand-name coat costs $500 because of its label, not warmth).
→ Under capitalism, exchange value often matters more than real usefulness.
What is “commodity fetishism”?
When people treat objects as if they have magical or special value, forgetting the human labour behind them.
Marx: Alienation
Under capitalism, workers become disconnected from their work, the things they make, and their own sense of purpose.
Types of Alienation
Alienation from the Product
Workers make things they don’t own.
The finished product belongs to the employer, not the person who made it.
A factory worker builds phones but can’t afford one themselves.
Types of Alienation
Alienation from the Process
Work feels forced and repetitive.
Workers don’t have control over what or how they produce.
It becomes something they have to do, not something they want to do.
Types of Alienation
Alienation from Themselves
Humans are naturally creative and want to shape the world.
They feel less human and more like a machine.
How does alienated labor affect workers?
Work stops being fulfilling — it feels like something done to them, not by them. People feel human only outside of work, not during it.
What does Smythe mean by “the audience commodity”?
Audiences are sold to advertisers as products; their attention is what’s being bought and sold.
When you watch The Bachelor on TV, advertisers pay the network to reach a specific audience (e.g., women 18–35). You’re not paying to watch — but your attention is what’s being sold.
What is immaterial labour according to the Autonomists?
Labour that produces knowledge, communication, relationships, and emotions — rather than physical goods.
A social media manager creating content and engaging with followers isn’t making a physical product but still generates economic value through communication and emotional connection.
What are the key implications of immaterial labour?
It blurs work and leisure — people are often “always working,” even outside the office, contributing value through online engagement or emotional effort.
Answering work emails at home or building your LinkedIn brand on the weekend are both forms of unpaid, continuous labour.
Free labour
Unpaid work done online that still creates economic value.
Posting on social media, Writing product reviews
How does free labour relate to capitalism?
The internet doesn’t break capitalism; it extends and intensifies it by turning social participation into a source of surplus value.
Posting photos on Instagram for free helps the platform make money from ads.
Why does Hesmondhalgh question labeling all unpaid work as exploitation?
Many unpaid activities are voluntary, beneficial, or skill-building (e.g., volunteering, hobbies). People can make intentional choices, not just be “duped.”
What are the 3 conditions of Marxian exploitation, and why doesn’t free labour fully meet them?
Material deprivation: (capitalist elite benefit, working classes deprived).
Exclusion: (social interactions tied to privately-owned platforms).
Appropriation: (data use, profiling, surveillance).
Free labour is voluntary, so it doesn’t fully satisfy these conditions.
content creators on platforms like TikTok
Material deprivation: The platform owners earn massive profits through ads, while most creators make little or nothing.
Exclusion: Creators must use privately owned platforms to reach audiences, reinforcing dependence on corporate systems.
Appropriation: Platforms collect and monetize creators’ data, using algorithms and profiling to target ads.
How can free labour become exploitative in the digital age?
Platforms control infrastructure and user data, creating value from voluntary activity (posts, chats, content) without wages, blurring work/leisure/home boundaries, leading to alienation and indirect extraction of value.
