(1) Anatomy 101 - Chapter 1 Flashcards
(169 cards)
1
Q
● Science that deals with the form and structure of all organisms
● Literally means to cut apart
A
Anatomy
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Q
○ Study of the form and relations (relative positions) of the structures of the body that can be seen with the unaided
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Gross (macroscopic) Anatomy
3
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○ Study of the structures of various species of animals, with particular emphasis on those characteristics that aid in classification
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Comparative anatomy
4
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○ Study of developmental anatomy, covering the period from conception to birth
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Embryology
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○ Study of tissues and cells that can be seen only with the aid of a microscope
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Histology (microscopic anatomy)
6
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○ Deals with portions of cells and tissues as they are visualized with the aid of the electron microscope
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Ultrastructural cytology
7
Q
a term frequently used in reference to structures seen in electron micrographs
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Fine structure
8
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○ A study of anatomy through a systematic approach
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Systemic anatomy
9
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suffix added to the root word referring to the system to name the study
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-ology (branch of knowledge or science)
10
Q
Practical Names?
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○ Function (i.e. adductor muscle of the thigh)
○ Position relative to other similar structure (i.e. superficial inguinal ring)
○ Location (i.e. infraorbital foramen)
○ Appearance or form (i.e. greater curvature of the stomach
11
Q
○ Relate the structure to a person, usually the person who first described the structure (e.g. canal of Schlemm)
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Eponymous names
12
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Because eponyms are useless from a practical standpoint, what ? discourages their use
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Nomina Anatomica Veterinaria
13
Q
towards the head
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Cranial
14
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towards the tail
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Caudal
15
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are directional terms used in reference to features of the head
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Rostral and caudal
16
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toward the nose
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rostral
17
Q
an imaginary plane passing through the body so as to divide the body into equal right and left halves
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Median plane
18
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any plane parallel to the median plane
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Sagittal plane
19
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The median plane is sometimes called the?
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midsagittal plane
20
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at right angles to the median plane and divides the body into cranial and caudal segments
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Transverse plane
21
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○ At right angles to both the median plane and transverse planes
○ Divides the body into dorsal (upper) and ventral (lower) segments
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Horizontal plane
22
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adjective meaning close to or toward the median plane
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Medial
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means away from the median plane
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Lateral
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toward or beyond the backbone or vertebral column
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Dorsal
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the noun referring to the dorsal portion or back
Dorsum
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away from the vertebral column or toward the midabdominal wall
Ventral
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indicate proximity to the center of an anatomical structure
Deep and internal
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refer to proximity to the surface of the body
Superficial and external
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relatively close to a given part, usually the vertebral column, body or center of gravity. Generally used in reference to an extremity of limb
Proximal
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farther from the vertebral column, and generally used in reference to portions of an extremity
Distal
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suffix used to form an adverb from any of the named directional terms, indicating movement in the direction of or toward
-ad
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refers to the flexor or caudal surface when describing the thoracic limb (forelimb)
Palmar
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refers to the caudal surface when describing the pelvic limb (hindlimb)
Plantar
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used in reference to the digits to mean toward the functional axis of the limb
Axial
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decreases the angle of a joint, as when the elbow or finger is bent
Flexion
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increases the angle of a joint, as when the elbow or finger is straightened
Extension
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extends a joint beyond a linear or straight configuration, so that the angle of the joint is extended beyond 180 degrees
Hyperextension (dorsiflexion)
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moves a body part toward the median plane, as when a limb is tucked under the body
Adduction
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moves a body part away from the median plane, as when a limb is pulled to the side
Abduction
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moves a structure cranially or rostrally, or moves it away from the central body, a when the tongue is projected from the mouth
Protraction
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moves a structure back toward the body, as when the tongue is replaced in the mouth
Retraction
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moves a structure dorsally, as when the shoulder is shrugged or the eyelid is opened
Elevation
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moves a structure ventrally, as when the eyelid is closed
Depression
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rotates the pelvic limb so that the plantar/caudal surface faces medially (similar to supination)
Inversion
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rotates the pelvic limb so that the plantar/caudal surface faces laterally or caudally (similar to pronation)
Eversion
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describes an essentially circular movement of a part (rather than a joint) around its long axis, as when the head of the humerus rotates in the glenoid cavity of the scapula
Rotation
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described a combined movement, involving both flexion/extension and abduction/adduction.
Circumduction
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refers to a position in which the dorsal aspect of the body or any extremity is uppermost
Prone
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refers to the act of turning toward a prone position
Pronation
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refers to the position in which the ventral aspect of the body or palmar or plantar aspect of an extremity is uppermost
Supine
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refers to the act of turning toward a supine position
Supination
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smallest, basic unit of life that is responsible for all of life’s processes
Cells
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Cells three main parts:
○ Cytoplasm
○ Nucleus
○ Cell membrane
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group of specialized cells
Tissue
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made up by cells that specialize in holding structures
Connective tissue
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group of tissues that work together for overall function
Organs
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group of organs that participate in a common enterprise
Organ system
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cover the surface of the body, line body cavities and form glands
Epithelial tissues
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support and bind other tissues together and from which the formed elements of the blood are derived (bone marrow)
Connective tissues
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specialize in contracting
Muscle tissues
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conduct impulses from one part of the body to another
Nervous tissues
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Epithelial Tissues
● Classified as?
simple (composed of single-layer) or stratified (many layered)
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● Classified as simple (composed of single-layer) or stratified (many layered)
● Further subdivided according to the shape of the individual cells within it
○ Squamous - platelike
○ Cuboidal - cubic
○ Columnar - cylindrical
○ Pseudostratified columnar
Epithelial Tissues
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○ Consists of thin, platelike cells
○ Much expanded in two directions but have little thickness
○ The edges are joined somewhat like a mosaic tile covering a floor
○ A layer of this tissue has little tensile strength and is found only as a covering layer for stronger tissues
○ Found where a smooth surface is required to reduce friction
○ e.g. covering of viscera and the linings of body cavities and blood vessels
Simple squamous epithelium
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○ Approximately equal in all dimensions
○ Found in some ducts and in passageways in the kidneys
Cuboidal epithelial cells
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○ Cylindrical
○ Arranged somewhat like the cells in a honeycomb
○ Some have whiplike projections called cilia extending from the free extremity
Columnar epithelial
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Columnar epithelial
○ Cylindrical
○ Arranged somewhat like the cells in a honeycomb
○ Some have whiplike projections called ? extending from the free extremity
cilia
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○ Composed of columnar cells
○ Vary in length, giving the appearance of more than one layer or stratum
○ Found in the upper respiratory tract, where the lining cells are ciliated
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
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○ Consists of more than one layer of epithelial cells and includes stratified squamous, stratified columnar, and transitional epithelia
Stratified epithelium
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○ Forms the outer layer of the skin and the lining of the first part of the digestive tract as far as the stomach
○ In ruminants, this tissue also lines the forestomach
○ Thickest and toughest of the epithelia, consisting of many layers of cells
Stratified squamous epithelium
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Stratified squamous epithelium
○ Layers (from deep to superficial):
■ Basal layer (stratum basale)
■ Parabasal layer (stratum spinosum)
■ Intermediate layer (stratum granulosum)
■ Superficial layer (stratum corneum)
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● contains the actively growing and multiplying cells
● Cells are somewhat cuboidal, but as they are pushed toward the surface, away from the blood supply of the underlying tissues, they become flattened, tough and lifeless
● This layer of cornified (keratinized) dead cells becomes very thick in areas subjected to friction
Basal layer (stratum basale)
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○ Composed of more than one layer of columnar cells and is found lining part of the pharynx and salivary ducts
Stratified columnar epithelium
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○ Lines the portions of the urinary system that are subjected to stretching (i.e. urinary bladder, ureters)
○ Can pile up many cells thick when the bladder is small and empty and stretch out to a single layer when completely filled
Transitional epithelium
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Cells that are specialized for secretion or excretion
Glandular epithelial cells
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release from the gland cells of a substance that has been synthesized by the cell and that usually affects other cells in other parts of the body
Secretion
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expulsion of waste products
Excretion
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glands without ducts, which empty their secretory products directly into the bloodstream
Endocrine
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glands that empty their secretory products on an epithelial surface,usually by means of ducts
Exocrine
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Endocrine glands produce?
hormones
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carried to all parts of the body by the blood constitute the humoral control of the body
Hormones
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Humoral control and nervous control are the two mechanisms maintaining?
homeokinesis
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Humoral control and nervous control are the two mechanisms maintaining homeokinesis , also called?
homeostasis
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Endocrine glands constitute what system?
endocrine system
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if the duct that not branch or has no duct at all ( gland )
Simple
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if it does not branch ( gland )
Compound
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if the secretory portion form a tubelike structure ( gland )
Tubular
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if the secretory portion resembles a grape or hollow ball ( gland )
Alveolar or acinar
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combination of tubular and alveolar secretory structures ( gland )
Tubuloalveolar gland
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Compound glands subdivided grossly into?
globes
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Compound glands subdivided grossly into globes , which are further subdivided into?
globules
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The connective tissue partitions, septa , are classified as ? if they separate lobes
interlobar septa
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The connective tissue partitions, septa , are classified as ? if they separate lobules
interlobular septa
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■ Pass their secretory products through the cell wall without any appreciable loss of cytoplasm or noticeable damage to the cell membrane
Merocrine gland
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■ Least common type
■ After the cells fills with secretory material, the entire gland cell discharges to the lumen of the gland to constitute the secretion
■ Sebaceous glands associated with hair follicles of the skin are the most common holocrine gland
Holocrine gland
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■ An intermediate form of secretion in which a small amount of cytoplasm and cell membrane is lost with the secretion
■ Prostate and some sweat glands
Apocrine gland
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Connective Tissues include:
○ Elastic tissue
○ Collagenous (white fibrous) tissue
○ Reticular (netlike) tissue
○ Adipose (fat) tissue
○ Cartilage
○ Bone
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○ Contains kinked fibers that tend to regain their original shape after being stretched
○ Found in the ligamentum nuchae , a strong band that helps to support the head, particularly in horses and cattle
○ Found in the abdominal tunic, in the ligamenta flava of the spinal canal, in elastic arteries, and mixed with other tissues wherever elasticity is needed
Elastic tissue
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Elastic tissue found in the?
ligamentum nuchae
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a strong band that helps to support the head, particularly in horses and cattle
ligamentum nuchae
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○ Found throughout the body in various forms
○ Individual cells (fibroblasts) produce long proteinaceous fibers of collagen, which have remarkable tensile strength
○ These fibers may be arranged in regular repeating units, or laid down in a more random, irregular arrangement
Collagenous (white fibrous) tissue
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○ The fibers are arranged in parallel bundles, forming cords or bands of considerable strength
○ These are the tendons , which connect muscles to bones and the ligaments, which connect bones to bones
Dense regular connective tissue
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○ What tissue is arranged in a thick mat, with fibers running in all directions
○ This forms a strong covering that resists tearing and yet is flexible enough to move with the surface of the body
Dense irregular connective tissue
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The dermis of the skin, which may be tanned to make leather, consists of what tissue?
dense irregular connective tissue
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○ Found throughout the body wherever protective cushioning and flexibility are needed
Areolar (loose) connective tissue
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○ Consists of fine fibrils and cells
○ Makes up part of the framework of endocrine and lymphatic organs
Reticular connective tissue
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○ Forms when connective tissue cells called adipocytes store fat as inclusions within the cytoplasm of the cell
○ As more fat is stored, the cell eventually becomes so filled with fat that the nucleus is pushed to one side of the cell, which, as a result, becomes spherical
Adipose (fat) tissue
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Adipose (fat) tissue forms when connective tissue cells called ? store fat as inclusions within the cytoplasm of the cell
adipocytes
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What adipose tissue is found in most animal body, although may have a yellow tinge in horses and some breeds of dairy cattle because of carotenoids in the feed?
White fat
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What adipose tissue may be found domestic mammals, hibernating mammals, rodents, and human infants?
■ Generates heat to protect young mammals and hibernating mammals from extreme cold
Brown fat
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○ A special type of connective tissue that is firmer than fibrous tissue but not as hard as bone
Cartilage
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The nature of cartilage is due to the structure of the intercellular material found between the?
chondrocytes (cartilage cells)
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The three types of cartilage:
hyaline, elastic and fibrous
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■ Glasslike covering of bones within joints
■ Forms a smooth surface that reduces friction, so that one bone easily glides over the another
■ The actively growing areas near the ends of long bones also consist of this cartilage
Hyaline cartilage
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■ Consists of a mixture of cartilage substance and elastic fibers
■ This type of cartilage gives shape and rigidity to the external ear
Elastic cartilage
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■ Consists of a mixture of cartilage and collagenous fibers, which forms a semi elastic cushion of great strength
■ The intervertebral discs between the bodies of adjacent vertebrae are composed of this cartilage
Fibrocartilage
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Produced by bone-forming cells called osteoblasts
Bone
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Bone is produced by bone-forming cells called?
osteoblasts
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What tissue does osteoblast produce? which later becomes calcified to form bone
osteoid tissue
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sponge-like network formed when bone is arranged in the form of spicules (small spikes) and flat plates
Cancellous or spongy bone
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what bone is laid down in the form of laminated cylinders (Haversian or osteonal systems ) closely packed together
Compact bone
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○ Consists of a fluid matrix (liquid portion), the plasma, a variety of cells, proteins, monosaccharides (simple sugars), products of fat degradation, and other circulating nutrients, wastes, electrolytes, and chemical intermediates of cellular metabolism
○ It is sometimes considered to be a connective tissue because of the origin of some of its components
Blood
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■ In most domestic mammals they are non-nucleated biconcave discs that contain the protein hemoglobin
■ Main function is to carry hemoglobin
Red blood cells | erythrocytes
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Red blood cells also called?
erythrocytes
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in turn has the primary function of carrying oxygen from the lungs to all tissues of the animal
Hemoglobin
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is a reduction in the concentration of functional RBCs in the blood
Anemia
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One of the body’s first line of defense against infection
White cells | leukocytes
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White cells also called?
leukocytes
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large cells ( Agranulocytes/White cells ) that engulf and destroy foreign particles
Monocytes
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smaller cell ( Agranulocytes/White cells ) and are associated with immune responses
Lymphocytes
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have 3 types that are described according to their affinity for different stains
Granulocytes | polymorphonuclear lymphocytes
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Granulocytes also called?
polymorphonuclear lymphocytes
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stain indifferently
Neutrophils
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have dark-staining granules when stained with common blood stains
Basophils
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have red-staining granules
Eosinophils
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small, irregularly shaped cellular fragments that are associated with the clotting of the blood
Platelets (thrombocytes)
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■ Is the fluid part of the unclotted blood
■ Particularly useful as a substitute for blood in transfusions because the proteins in it give it the same osmotic pressure as blood
■ This fluid, therefore, will not escape from blood vessels as readily as a salt solution
Plasma
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■ Is the supernatant fluid that remains after a clot forms and incorporates the cellular components of blood
■ It is similar to plasma but lacks most of the clotting factors
■ Sometimes administered for prevention and treatment of diseases because it contains the antibody fractions of the blood
Serum
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Three types of muscle tissue:
○ Skeletal
○ Smooth
○ Cardiac
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muscle cells that consist of fibers that show characteristic cross-striations under the microscope
Striated muscle
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■ Each muscle cell must have its own nerve supply, and when stimulated, the whole fiber contracts
■ This is the all-or-none law of muscle contraction
■ The force of contraction depends on the state on the state of the fiber at any moment
Skeletal
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Striated skeletal muscle tissue plus some connective tissue makes up the ? of meat-producing animals
flesh
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■ Are spindle-shaped cells that contain one centrally located nucleus per cell
■ Found in the walls of the digestive tract, in the walls of blood vessels, and in the walls of urinary and reproductive organs
■ These cells contract more slowly than skeletal muscle and in response to a variety of stimuli, although they are not under voluntary control
Smooth muscle cells
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■ Also known as involuntary striated muscle because it is not usually under conscious control, yet it does have cross-striations
■ The heart muscle is composed of a complex branched arrangement of cardiac muscle cells
Cardiac muscle
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Modified muscle cells called ? conduct impulses within the heart, much as nerve fibers do in other parts of the body
Purkinje fibers
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the essential cell of nervous tissue
Neuron
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the processes that conduct impulses away from the cell body
Axons
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the processes that conduct impulses toward the cell body
Dendrites
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bundles of axons in the spinal cord
Tracts
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bundles of axons in the periphery
Nerves
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What is a specialized wrapping created by supportive cells called Schwann cells in nerves and oligodendrocytes within the brain and spinal cord
Myelin sheath
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Myelin sheath is a specialized wrapping created by supportive cells called ? in nerves
Schwann cells
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Myelin sheath - a specialized wrapping created by supportive cells called ? within the brain and spinal cord
oligodendrocytes
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what is a special connective tissues of nervous tissue and are found only in the central nervous system?
Neuroglia
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● Exhibits bilateral symmetry
● The right and left sides of it are mirror images of each other
body
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Similar right and left structures of the body are called
paired structures
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Most unpaired structures are on or near on what plane ?, and of course, only one of each unpaired structure exists in any given animal
median plane
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Most unpaired structures are on or near on what plane ?, and of course, only one of each unpaired structure exists in any given animal
median plane
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the simple squamous epithelium lining various body cavities
Mesothelium
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divides the embryonic body cavity into a thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity
diaphragm
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What sac surrounds the heart
Pericardial sac
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What sac surrounds the two lungs
Pleural sac (2)
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Sacs are formed by a serous membrane called ? , a layer of simple squamous epithelium with underlying connective tissue, moistened with the small amount of fluid within the cavity of the sac
pleura
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divided into abdominal and pelvic cavity
Abdominopelvic cavity
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What cavity contains the kidneys, most of the digestive organs and a variable amount of the internal reproductive organs in both sexes
Abdominal cavity
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contains the terminal part of the digestive system (the rectum) and all of the internal portions of the urogenital system not found in the abdominal cavity
Pelvic cavity
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the serous membrane that surrounds the abdominal viscera and part of the pelvic viscera
Peritoneum
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part of the serous membrane covering the viscus
Visceral serous membrane
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serous membrane lining a body cavity
Parietal serous membrane
