11 - Nature and History of Science Flashcards
This deck explores common data-gathering methods and tools (e.g., thermometers, microscopes), units of measurement (e.g., temperature, mass, energy), and scientific inquiry, including experimental design and error analysis. It highlights key scientific contributions and teaches data interpretation from tables, graphs, and charts.
1
Q
Explain:
Purpose of science.
A
To gain knowledge about the natural world.
Scientists aim to answer questions, explain phenomena or validate hypotheses.
2
Q
Define:
empirical data
A
Information that is gathered through observation or experimentation.
Verifiable and measurable data.
3
Q
Identify:
Whar are scientific tools found in most science labs?
A
- Beaker
- Flask
- Microscope
- Graduated cylinder
- Gram scale
- Thermometer
- Petri dish
- Bunsen burner
4
Q
Identify:
The system of measurement scientists use.
A
International System of Units (SI), also known as the metric system.
5
Q
Identify:
The property a graduated cylinder measures.
A
Volume of liquids in precise units.
6
Q
Identify:
Scientific tool used for measuring temperature.
A
thermometer
7
Q
Define:
meniscus
A
The curved shape a liquid makes inside a graduated cylinder.
8
Q
Describe:
The main function of a microscope.
A
To magnify tiny, two-dimensional objects.
9
Q
Identify:
The tool astronomers use to observe space.
A
telescope
10
Q
Identify:
Properties measured by common scientific tools.
A
- Mass
- Temperature
- Length or distance
- Volume
- Weight
- Density
11
Q
Explain:
Why is it important to have a standard set of units in laboratory measurements?
A
To allow scientists to communicate effectively and efficiently.
Standardized units prevent confusion and inaccuracies in measurements.
12
Q
Identify:
The standard unit of length in the metric system.
A
meter
(m)
A meter is approximately equal to 3.28 feet.
13
Q
Identify:
The standard unit for volume in the metric system.
A
liter
(L)
One liter is approximately 33.81 ounces.
14
Q
Identify:
The standard unit for mass in the metric system.
A
kilogram
(kg)
Mass is not the same as weight; mass is the amount of matter in an object.
15
Q
Identify:
The unit used to measure temperature in a biology lab.
A
Celsius
(°C)
Named after Swedish scientist Anders Celsius.
16
Q
Explain:
What is the conversion formula from Fahrenheit to Celsius?
A
°C = (°F - 32) x 5/9
This formula helps to accurately convert temperature between the two scales.
17
Q
Explain:
The potential error when converting between units of measurement.
A
Loss of accuracy due to rounding.
Each conversion can introduce small errors that accumulate over time.
18
Q
Explain:
The relationship between area and length in the metric system.
A
Area is measured in square meters (m²).
Area is calculated by squaring the length measurement.
19
Q
Identify:
The steps of the scientific method.
A
- Asking a question.
- Forming a hypothesis.
- Testing the hypothesis.
- Analyzing data.
- Drawing conclusions.
These steps can be used in various orders and may be reused during the investigation.
20
Q
Define:
hypothesis
A
Proposed explanation for scientific observations that aim to describe and/or explain natural phenomena.
A testable and falsifiable prediction about the outcome of an investigation. A hypothesis is typically stated in an if-then format.
21
Q
Identify:
Two characteristics a hypothesis must have.
A
- Testable
- Falsifiable
A hypothesis must be able to be proven wrong through experimentation.
22
Q
Describe:
The independent variable in an experiment.
A
The variable that is changed or controlled by the experimenter in a scientific study to create groups.
23
Q
Describe:
The dependent variable in an experiment.
A
The outcome variable that is measured and affected in the experiment.
24
Q
Define:
A control in an experiment.
A
The condition that is compared to the experimental group.
25
# Explain:
What occurs after scientists **collect data**?
They **analyze** and **interpret** it.
## Footnote
This involves **organizing** the data into graphs, charts or tables to **identify patterns**.
26
# Explain:
What happens if the data supports or does not support the **hypothesis**?
* **If data supports the hypothesis, it is proven true**, and further investigations may follow.
* **If data does not support the hypothesis, it is revised or restated**, and the investigation may restart with a new hypothesis.
27
# Describe:
viable hypothesis
**A proposed explanation of an observation** that asks a clear and specific question and provides informed assertions for how it might be proven.
28
# Explain:
The relationship between scientific **questions** and **hypotheses**
Hypotheses follow scientific questions and **a good question helps in formulating a good hypothesis**.
29
# Explain:
The difference between a **scientific theory** and a **hypothesis**.
**A theory is a hypothesis that has been tested multiple times** and is supported by the scientific community.
## Footnote
Theories demonstrate consistent results across experiments.
30
# Define:
scientific law
A **mathematical statement** that describes how something happens.
## Footnote
It does not explain why something happens.
31
# Identify:
Examples of **scientific laws**.
* Ohm's Law
* Biot-Savart Law
* Newton's Laws of Motion
## Footnote
These laws are **universally accepted** and have a **high level of precision**.
32
# Explain:
Can a **theory** become a **law**?
**Yes**, if it meets strict mathematical standards.
## Footnote
Very few scientific laws exist, but they all originated from hypotheses and theories.
33
# Identify:
Examples of **disproven theories**.
* Flat Earth
* Geocentric Universe
* Blank Slate Theory
## Footnote
These theories have been shown to be incorrect through scientific evidence.
34
# Explain:
The purpose of having a **control group** in an experiment.
To serve as a **baseline for comparison** with the experimental group.
35
# Define:
experimental group
The **group that receives a change** to their natural environment.
36
# Describe:
placebo effect
When **behavior changes due to expectations** rather than the actual treatment.
## Footnote
Avoided by ensuring a good control group.
37
# Explain:
The goal of **random assignment** in an experiment.
It ensures that each participant has an **equal chance** of being in either group.
## Footnote
This helps maintain the **integrity** of the experiment and ensures groups are **comparable**.
38
# Define:
sample
The **group of people** actually participating in the **study**.
## Footnote
The sample is always smaller than the population.
39
# Describe:
convenience sample
A sample made up of **readily available participants**.
## Footnote
This method may lead to bias in the sample.
40
# Define:
random sample
A sample in which **every person in the population has an equal chance** of being included.
## Footnote
This method is more likely to yield a **representative sample**.
41
# Define:
stratified random sample
A sample where the **population is divided** based on important variables and **then randomly chosen from each group**.
## Footnote
This ensures **representation of key demographics** in the sample.
42
# Identify:
The group that **does not receive any treatment** in an experiment.
control group
43
# Identify:
The group that **receives the treatment** in an experiment.
experimental group
44
# Describe:
The main goal of an **experiment**.
To determine if changes in the independent variable cause changes in the dependent variable.
## Footnote
This relationship is fundamental to establishing **cause and effect**.
45
# Define:
experimental error
Any **variance** between a measurement taken during an experiment and the established value.
## Footnote
Experimental error does not refer to human mistakes but to **discrepancies in measurements**.
46
# Explain:
How is **experimental error** calculated?
Subtract the established value from the measured value.
## Footnote
For example, if a scale reads 5.132 grams instead of 5 grams, the experimental error is 0.132 grams.
47
# Define:
data
| Context of experiments
Collected **measurements**, **observations** and **calculations** used to form conclusions.
## Footnote
Data can be used in various contexts, not just scientific experiments.
48
# Explain:
What causes **errors in data**?
Any **variation** in data due to **imperfections** in measuring devices or observations.
## Footnote
Errors can occur during data collection, such as fluctuations in environmental factors.
49
# Explain:
The **difference** between *accuracy* and *precision*.
* **Accuracy** refers to how close measurements are to the **true value**.
* **Precision** refers to **consistency**, meaning how close multiple measurements are to each other.
## Footnote
For example, measurements can be precise but not accurate if they are consistently off from the true value.
50
# Define:
systematic error
An error that occurs when **measurements vary significantly from the true value** in a **constant** and **predictable way**.
## Footnote
Examples include improperly calibrated instruments or consistent miscalculations.
51
# Define:
random error
An error that occurs when **measurements differ from the true value** in a **random**, **inconsistent way**.
## Footnote
Random errors can arise from fluctuations in environmental conditions or machine readings.
52
# Identify:
Examples of **systematic errors**.
* Improperly calibrated flow meters
* Non-tared scales
* Stretched cloth measuring tape
## Footnote
Systematic errors consistently affect **all measurements in the same direction**.
53
# Identify:
Examples of **random errors**.
* Fluctuating temperatures.
* Estimations of a volume in a cylinder between two graduations.
## Footnote
Random **errors vary in magnitude and direction**, making them less predictable.
54
# Identify:
Strategies that can mitigate **random errors**.
* Increasing **sample size**.
* Taking **multiple measurements**.
## Footnote
These strategies help produce an average closer to the true value, although they do not eliminate random errors.
55
# Explain:
The impact of **blunders** on experimental data.
Blunders generally render the collected data **invalid**.
## Footnote
Careless mistakes can lead to **inaccurate results and conclusions**.
56
# Identify:
3 types of **experimental errors**.
1. Systematic errors
1. Random errors
1. Blunders
## Footnote
Each type has different causes and implications for data accuracy.
57
# Describe:
The primary functions of **charts**, **graphs** and **tables**.
They **clarify** complicated numerical and **statistical information** to help **visualize** numeric ideas in context.
58
# Define:
chart
| Mathematical or statistical context
A visual picture of **number relationships**.
## Footnote
Example: **pie chart**
59
# Define:
graph
* A **line** drawn between **data points**
* Offers a **visual representation of the numbers**, simplifying the understanding of their **relationships**.
## Footnote
The word comes from the Greek *graphe*, meaning *writing*.
60
# Define:
table
* A structured set of numbers in **columns** and **rows**.
* It helps display **facts** and **numbers** in an organized way.
## Footnote
Tables help look up a specific item of information.
61
# Explain:
The purpose of a **legend**.
| charts, graphs and tables
* Provides **important information for interpreting** the picture.
* **Explains** elements like **units** or the meaning of **colors**.
62
# Explain:
The purpose of a **title** in a chart, graph or table.
It provides the **name** and **brief description** of what is being shown.
63
# Explain:
The role **headings** play in a table.
They tell **what is contained in a section of information**, especially for columns and rows.
64
# Describe:
The use of **labels** in charts, graphs and tables.
They **define specific sections** or points of information.
65
# Identify:
The final step of any **experiment**.
Drawing **logical conclusions** from the experimental data.
## Footnote
This step is critical for explaining the meaning of the results.
66
# Explain:
Why is **explaining data** important in **scientific research**?
It provides **context** and **purpose** to the **results**, informing future studies.
## Footnote
This helps to understand the implications of the findings.
67
# Describe:
What should a scientist do to **interpret data** effectively?
Look closely at the data to **determine its meaning and implications**.
## Footnote
This process is similar to making daily life decisions based on available information.
68
# Explain:
What the process of **drawing logical conclusions** involve?
Evaluating information and making appropriate **judgments**.
## Footnote
This is considered the **most important step in the scientific process**.
69
# Explain:
How can **subjectivity** affect the **interpretation of data**?
Background, education, analyses performed and motives can **influence conclusions**.
## Footnote
This subjectivity can lead to differing interpretations among scientists.
70
# Explain:
Why are **disagreements among scientists** beneficial?
They **stimulate further research** and better understanding of the data.
## Footnote
Disagreements can enhance scientific knowledge and lead to improved data collection.
71
# Identify:
Misconception about **scientific conclusions**.
That everyone will agree on the conclusions drawn from the same data.
## Footnote
In reality, differing opinions are common in scientific discourse.
72
# Identify:
A common perception of the **Middle Ages**.
Commonly seen as a point of **intellectual stagnation**, often referred to as the **Dark Ages**.
## Footnote
This perception suggests that learning and achievements of the Romans were lost.
73
# Identify:
The **time period** that the term **Middle Ages** refers to.
Approximately **400-1400 A.D.**
## Footnote
Historians debate the exact start and end dates of this period.
74
# Identify:
Some nicknames associated with the **Middle Ages**.
* Dark Ages
* Medieval Period
## Footnote
These terms evoke images of barbaric armies and backward cultures. However, it is wrong to assume that the period was entirely void of intellectual activity.
75
# Explain:
What contributed to the perception of **intellectual stagnation** during the **Middle Ages**?
A lack of significant **evidence documenting learning** during this period.
## Footnote
The Romans left substantial architectural and engineering achievements, contrasting with the Middle Ages.
76
# Identify:
The primary **occupation** of the majority of the population during the **Middle Ages**
**Farmers** who focused on growing food for themselves and their families.
## Footnote
This left little time for intellectual pursuits.
77
# Identify:
What **intellectual fields** grew in southwestern Europe during the **Middle Ages**?
**Philosophy**, **science** and **mathematics** thrived, particularly from 800-1200 A.D.
## Footnote
This period is considered a golden age of intellectual activity.
78
# Explain:
Who was **Ibn Khaldun** and what was his **contribution**?
A Muslim thinker who developed economic principles regarding labor division and supply and demand.
## Footnote
His ideas predated those of Adam Smith by centuries.
79
# Define:
scholasticism
A **method of critical reading and debate** based on accepted truths, often involving ancient texts.
## Footnote
It contrasts with the Enlightenment's more universal truth-seeking approach.
80
# Identify:
The **movement** that marked a change in **thinking** during the **16th and 17th centuries**
The Scientific Revolution
## Footnote
This movement was characterized by new methods of acquiring knowledge based on **observation**, **experimentation** and **reason**.
81
# Explain:
How did the **Scientific Revolution** and the **Enlightenment** differ from the **Middle Ages**?
The **Scientific Revolution** and the **Enlightenment** made significant progress in **knowledge** compared to the slower advances of the Middle Ages.
## Footnote
The first two emphasized reason, scientific inquiry and individual rights, while the Middle Ages focused more on religious authority and tradition. Modern society is heavily influenced by ideas from the Enlightenment.
82
# Identify:
Who published the **Heliocentric model** in **1543**?
Nicolaus Copernicus
## Footnote
His work fundamentally challenged the Church's view that the Earth was the center of the universe.
83
# Identify:
The scientific milestone that occured at the end of the **Scientific Revolution** in 1687.
Isaac Newton's **Laws of Universal Gravitation and Motion**.
## Footnote
This work was pivotal in solidifying the principles of classical mechanics.
84
# Identify:
2 characteristics of the **Enlightenment**.
1. Use of **reason** to achieve new knowledge.
1. **Questioning** of absolute monarchies.
## Footnote
**This period followed the Scientific Revolution** and emphasized rational thought.
85
# Identify:
3 classic **disciplines of science** developed during the **Scientific Revolution**.
1. Astronomy
1. Biology
1. Physics
## Footnote
These fields saw formalization and significant advancements during this period.
86
# Identify:
Who formulated the **Laws of Motion**?
Isaac Newton
## Footnote
His work in physics established the basis for classical mechanics.
87
# Explain:
Snell's Law
* Refraction of light
* The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is constant for a given pair of media.
* sin(θ₁)/sin(θ₂) = n₂/n₁
## Footnote
where:
θ₁ = angle of incidence
θ₂ = angle of refraction
n₁ = refractive index of the first medium
n₂ = refractive index of the second medium
It was postulated by Willebrord Snellius during the Scientific Revolution.
88
# Identify:
What important book did **Andreas Vesalius** publish in 1543?
*De humani corporis fabrica*
## Footnote
This work initiated **human anatomy** as a science and corrected previous misconceptions.
89
# Identify:
What did **William Harvey** research in 1628?
The circulatory system.
## Footnote
His research provided a comprehensive understanding of how blood circulates in the body.
90
# Identify:
The founders of **integral and differential calculus**.
Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
## Footnote
Their contributions laid the groundwork for modern calculus.
91
# Explain:
The significant change the **Scientific Revolution** brought to the **relationship between science and the Church**.
* It **weakened the Church's influence** over science.
* Many scientific discoveries **contradicted Church teachings**, leading to conflicts.
92
# Identify:
What did **Francis Bacon** advocate for in his work **Novum Organum**?
**Induction** as a method for knowledge generation.
## Footnote
This was in contrast to Aristotle's deductive reasoning.
93
# Identify:
**Galileo Galilei**'s contributions to astronomy.
He developed the **telescope** and **observed celestial bodies**.
## Footnote
His findings supported the **heliocentric model** and expanded acceptance of Copernican theory.
94
# Identify:
The contributions of **Pierre de Fermat** and **Blaise Pascal** during the **Scientific Revolution**.
Theory of Probability and Combinatorics.
## Footnote
Their work laid foundational principles in these mathematical fields.
95
# Explain:
The impact of the **Scientific Method** on **modern science**.
It ensures valid generation of new knowledge.
## Footnote
This iterative process allows for continual refinement and testing of hypotheses.
96
# Describe:
The main **themes of advancements** in science and technology since **1945**.
The rapid progression and proliferation of innovations across various fields such as **communication**, **transportation** and **computing**.
## Footnote
The advancements have been likened to a **snowball effect**, where small developments lead to larger innovations.
97
# Identify:
The primary household **communication device** before WWII.
The radio.
## Footnote
Televisions existed but were expensive and had limited programming.
98
# Identify:
What was the decade in which **television** became widely popular?
The 1950s.
## Footnote
Television allowed people to witness significant events in real-time.
99
# Identify:
What as the **major event** that many Americans watched on television in **1969**?
Neil Armstrong's **landing on the moon**.
100
# Identify:
What was the significant change that occurred in **television technology** in the **1970s**?
**Color televisions** largely replaced black-and-white sets.
101
# Identify:
What was the technological **advancement in televisions** that emerged in the **1990s**?
High definition (**HD**) televisions.
102
# Identify:
The major **advancement in telephone communication** after WWII, particularly in the **1990s**
The proliferation of the **cellular phone**.
## Footnote
The first true cellular phones arrived in the 1980s.
103
# Identify:
What has spurred research and development in **alternative fuel cars** since WWII?
* Environmental awareness
* High oil prices
104
# Identify:
What was the significant **advancement in air travel** that occurred in the **1950s**?
The advent of the **jet engine**.
105
# Identify:
The **1971 invention** that significantly impacted **computing**.
The first microprocessor.
106
# Identify:
The **type of computers** that became popular in homes during the **1980s**.
**In-home computers** with a graphic user interface.
107
# Identify:
The **portable computer** that became common in the **1990s**.
Laptops.
108
# Identify:
The significance of **computers in modern technology**.
They are **integrated into nearly every device** and aspect of daily life.
## Footnote
Examples include alarm systems, thermostats, and cars.
109
# List:
The most important **scientific and technological improvements** since **WWII**.
* Widespread use of **television** and **color TV**.
* Invention of the **cellular phone** and **smartphones**.
* Development of **alternative fuel cars**.
* Introduction of the **jet engine** in air travel.
* Evolution of computing from large machines to portable devices like **laptops** and **smartphones**.
110
# Identify:
The single **greatest change in technology** since the **1940s**.
Computing.
