Sexual identities

Question 1

Define Heteronormativity:

Answer 1

Heteronormativity: Acceptance in a culture that heterosexual relationships are the norm and any other form of sexuality is abnormal. Heteronormativity portrays heterosexuality as a superior form of sexuality.

Question 2

Define Stigmatised Identity/Spoiled Identity

Answer 2

Stigmatised Identity/Spoiled Identity: An individual’s concept of themselves – ‘the self’ is based on a hegemonic gender identity is likely to see gay sexuality as outside of ‘normal sex’ and therefore deviant and having a ‘stigmatised’ or ‘spoiled identity’. The consequence for gay men and lesbians is hostility in various arts of society, such as the streets, pubs, clubs, schools, mockery in the media, anti-gay jokes etc. Examples of other ‘stigmatised’ forms of sexuality, are paedophilia, sado-masochism, transvestism and exhibitionism. It is for this negative label that many sexualities which do not conform to ‘normal sex’ are concealed. Goffman notes that these people will use ‘impression management’ to hide aspects of their sexuality to prevent public stigmatisation and discrimination.

Question 3

SEXUALITY: Biology v Culture. What is Social Constructionism?

Answer 3

What is social constructionism: This concept describes the formation of an identity through the culture of which and individual lives. Therefore and identity is constructed by the interactions with others in that specific culture and through the agents of socialisation. This therefore explains how identities, such as sexual identities can vary from culture to culture. This is also the same for class, ethnicity and gender.

Question 4

SEXUALITY: Biology v Culture. In terms of sexuality, there are two schools of thought:

Answer 4

Sexuality is a ‘product of biology’
 Belief that we are born gay, straight or bisexual.
 Belief that there is a ‘gay gene

Sexuality is a ‘social construction’ (Ann Cronin 1997)
 Sexual preference is more about choice rather than something that is biologically determined.
 Cronin (1997) argues that the idea that you are born heterosexual or homosexual grew from the 17th century when the social identity of homosexual began to emerge. However, from this time, Cronin argues that there is widespread support for the idea that sexual identities are a choice.
 What is considered as sexually attractive in terms of heterosexual men changes over time and also from country to country and culture to culture, such as in USA there is an emphasis amongst some ethnic groups to have a big bum for a woman, whereas in the UK the focus is on being waif-like slim.

Question 5

How is an individual’s social experience affected by sexuality?

Answer 5

1. They are stigmatised by other member of society.
2. They may be subject to discrimination or stereotyped by members of society.
3. The maybe subject to verbal or physical abuse.
4. They have different leisure activities.
5. Gay people have a relatively low representation in the media.
6. Society makes a presumption that people are heterosexual before anything else.

Question 6

Heteronormativity in the UK.

Answer 6

Heterosexuality has been the dominant form of sexual identity traditionally in the UK. This is because of the links to reproduction. This is dominant set of values is called heteronormativity.

Question 7

History: Homosexuality illegal or legal?.

Answer 7

19th century: Homosexuality between men was illegal and punishable by imprisonment.

Early 20th century: homosexuality was seen as abnormal sexuality, with even some seeing it as a mental illness brought about by too much mothering and the lack of a strong father figure.

1950’s: There was still a view that homosexuality was a biological/mental illness and that electric shock treatment was used on homosexual men to ‘cure’ them of their condition. This history of ‘repressive controls’ on homosexuality (repressive means enforced upon, such as Police, Laws etc.) made it difficult for gay men to ‘come out’.

In the late 1950/60’s we start to see a cultural change in attitudes towards homosexuality. This led to the decriminalisation of homosexual acts between adults over the age of 21. By the 1970’s homosexuality was no longer seen as a psychiatric condition and the age of consent was lower from 21 to 16 in 2001.

In 2005, the Civil Partnerships law was introduced allowing gay couples to formally join together and in 2014 it went one step further and now gay marriage is now legal.

Laws governing the discrimination on the basis of sexuality were introduced in 1999, leading to the Equality Act 2010.

Question 8

What did Taylor say in 1997 about discrimination in treatment of homosexuality?

Answer 8

Taylor (1997) – Female homosexuals (lesbians) have a much lower social profile compared to gay men and therefore the decriminalisation of sexuality up until the 196’s was based on gay men and did not include lesbians.

Question 9

Many women wanted social change for legalisation and acceptance of homosexuality. Discuss with reference to the Radical Feminist movement.

Answer 9

Many women wanted to bring about social change for women and therefore supported the Radical Feminist movement. This focuses on political and sexual separateness from men a necessity if they are to overcome patriarchy. They believe that political lesbianism is a way to live without men and to try to resist the discriminatory power of men. Radical feminists, although are aware of progress being made by women, believe that this progress is still within a patriarchal society and therefore they will never gain a true equality.

Question 10

What are the four main points of gay subculture, leisure & consumption

Answer 10

1. The 1970’s saw the emergence of a gay subculture, offering a positive gay identity.
2. The gay culture emerged with a focus on leisure and consumption, so this may include going to gay bars, buying cars, buying products for their appearance, gym etc.
3. The use of the ‘Pink Pound’/spending power of gay professionals has been targeted by gay bars, restaurants and clubs. The spending of the ‘Pink Pound’ and new forms of masculinity have overcome most of the stigma attached to homosexuality and also reducing the feeling of difference and opposition between gay and straight men.
4. The gay subculture has become politicised and their social identity has increased in visibility and also political power, especially with issues surrounding marriage and equal rights.

Question 11

What are the three key movements of gay subculture, leisure & consumption that have actively sought changes to the law?

Answer 11

1. Reports - such as the Stonewall Report – Actively campaigning for equal rights between homosexuals and heterosexuals.
2. Demonstrations – Gay Pride, Marches, Petitions, Demonstrations to heighten awareness. These strategies, in addition to the increase in gay celebrities has made people more open towards sexual identities.
3. LGBT Movement (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender) – Fighting for equal rights are now taking place within these specific sexual identities.

Question 12

It is important to note, that whilst Postmodernists may support the rise of the gay movement…

Continue this discussion.

Answer 12

It is important to note, that whilst Postmodernists may support the rise of the gay movement as it signifies choice, diversity and equality, in reality there are still structural barriers, cultural attitudes and discrimination which is still preventing gay people from living their lives free from prejudice. Therefore, although positive change has occurred there is still prejudice and discrimination against gay people and it hasn’t disappeared completely. Homophobic attacks on gay people are still prevalent in society which suggests that homosexuality is not accepted by all sections of society. Dorais (2004) found that many gay men had attempted suicide as they struggled with their own sexual identity in a homophobic society who judged these men as effeminate (characterised by feminine traits) and therefore did not fit into the norms of heterosexuality.

Question 13

List the seven key changes to Sexual Identities.

Answer 13

1. Law Changes
2. Cultural Expectations and Cultural Acceptance
3. Rise in more choice of masculinity
4. Sexualisation of Men’s bodies/Moobies
5. Role of Media in body image portrayal
6. Physical Scrutiny of Men
7. Leisure and Consumption/Pink Pound

Question 14

Define the key change to Sexual Identity: Law Changes

Answer 14

Rise of equal rights legislation, such as Equality Act 2010, Civil Partnerships (2005), Gay Marriage (2014)

Question 15

Define the key change to Sexual Identity: Cultural Expectations and Cultural Acceptance

Answer 15

Rise in more choice of masculine identities. Men are increasingly more concerned with their body shape, appearance, weight, diet etc.

Question 16

Define the key change to Sexual Identity: Rise in more choice of masculinity

Answer 16

Rise in more choice of masculine identities. Men are increasingly more concerned with their body shape, appearance, weight, diet etc.

Question 17

Define the key change to Sexual Identity: Sexualisation of Men’s bodies/Moobies

Answer 17

Traditionally the media’s obsession has been surrounding women’s breasts, however, recently the media has turned its attention ‘moobies’ (male boobs) in the 2000’s. This began with the Sun newspaper publishing their ‘Wall of Shame’ pictures of famous men’s breasts in 2005. The key focus has been on reinforcing an ideal body image through the stigmatisation of bad body shape of men.

Question 18

Define the key change to Sexual Identity: Role of Media in body image portrayal

Answer 18

Men’s bodies have become more sexualised with more men’s naked bodies being portrayed in the media, such as ‘Torso of the Week’ in some women’s magazines, and through perfume advertising, such as Calvin Klein. This increase in prevalence signifies the growing importance of men’s body image, rather than just women’s.
Daniel Craig’s appearance as James Bond in Casino Royale (2006) was noted as being the more naked than anyone else the film – As one reviewer puts it… “Craig’s ripped pecs being the most public symbol of British masculinity”

Question 19

Define the key change to Sexual Identity: Physical Scrutiny of Men

Answer 19

Men are now beginning to face the same physical scrutiny as women has traditionally in the past. McRobbie (1994) notes “The beauty stakes have gone up for men, and women have taken up the position of active viewers”.

Question 20

Define the key change to Sexual Identity: Leisure and Consumption/Pink Pound

Answer 20

The gay identity has led to gay professionals spending their ‘Pink Pound’ and engaging in different leisure activities to heterosexual males. There is an emphasis on physical appearance and demonstrating identity through what they buy.

Question 21

Heterosexuality is also governed by social constructionism (culture).

Continue this paragraph

Answer 21

Heterosexuality is also governed by social constructionism (culture). This is illustrated by the way that sexual attractiveness has changed over time but also across cultures.

Question 22

There are 3 key sources of evidence that supports the view that heterosexuality is constructed by culture:

Answer 22

1. Sexual Attractiveness of the Female Body
2. Differing body image portrayal in the media
3. Double Standards in Sexual Identity

Question 23

Define the key source of evident that supports the view that heterosexuality is constructed by culture:

Sexual Attractiveness of the Female Body

Answer 23

18th/19th Century
Paintings of women suggests that the ideal of feminine beauty was on ‘plump’ voluptuous women.

1950’s
Marilyn Monroe – Sex icon, but still considered a full-figured woman

Present Day
Waif-Like, skinny supermodels and celebrities are idealised by the media which creates a level of expectation of women’s body shape.

Question 24

Define the key source of evident that supports the view that heterosexuality is constructed by culture:

Differing body image portrayal in the media

Answer 24

The media criticise ‘fat’ women or overweight women and highlight this in magazines and newspapers. Some feminists argue that these media representations have led to eating disorders in modern society.

Hunt (2001) argues that ‘the media recognise society’s obsession with looking slim and perpetuate the idea that slimness = success, health, happiness and popularity. Although images of the ideal male body shape are in the media, it seems to have less of an impact on men compared to women.

Mulvey (2009) ‘Male Gaze’ Women’s sexual identity has been surrounded by being sex objects. The Male Gaze is a concept which explains that women’s identity is controlled and governed by men. Women’s identity is for men to gaze at them and therefore men have power and control over women’s identity as they decide what they deem as sexually attractive in a woman and therefore a woman confirms to this. This is reinforced by the media through their imagery and stories about female celebrities, top-shelf magazines and within page 3 of the Sun newspaper.

Question 25

Define the key source of evident that supports the view that heterosexuality is constructed by culture:

Double Standards in Sexual Identity

Answer 25

Men and women have different sexual identities. In terms of sexual morality for men and women there are double standards.

Lees (1986) notes that for women who are promiscuous they are labelled negatively as ‘slags’, whereas for the same act, a man is labelled as a ‘stud’. This highlights the double standards and emphasises the idea of men being a hunter-gatherer and a conqueror.

For women, their sexual identity carries risks, especially in the stigmatisation of their identity is they are seen to be too sexually active.