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Nutrition > EXAM 2: Bioenergetics > Flashcards

EXAM 2: Bioenergetics Flashcards

1
Q

water has been described as ________ but overlooked

A

essential

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2
Q

what is the most abundant compound on earths surface

A

water

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3
Q

properties of water

A

high specific heat capacity

high heat of vaporization

high specific enthalpy of fusion

high dielectric constant

high surface tension

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4
Q

value for heat of vaporization

A

40.65 KJ

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5
Q

specific enthalpy of fusion value

A

333.55 Kj

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6
Q

functions of water

A

solvent
transportation medium
temperature regulation
lubricant/cushion
respiration
hydrolysis

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7
Q

what three things classify as temperature regulation

A

thermal conductivity
specific heat
latent heat of vaporization

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8
Q

location of water in the body

A

intracellular and extracellular

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9
Q

extracellular fluid

A

blood plasma
interstitial fluid

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10
Q

isotonic solution

A

same salt concentration as cells and blood

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11
Q

physiological saline

A

0.9% NaCl

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12
Q

hypotonic solution

A

a solution that has lower osmotic pressure than another solution to which it is compared

cells swell

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13
Q

hypertonic solution

A

external solution that has a high solute concentration and low water concentration compared to body fluids

cells shrink

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14
Q

source of body water

A

drinking water
free water in feed
metabolic or oxidation water

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15
Q

water losses

A

urine
feces
sweating
insensible
drooling of saliva
respiration

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16
Q

what percent of CHO is water

A

60%

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17
Q

what percent of fat is water

A

109%

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18
Q

what percent of proteins is water

A

40%

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19
Q

urea average of temperate animals

A

0.6%

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20
Q

urea average of desert animals

A

22%

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21
Q

desert animals excretes a ______ feces

A

drier

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22
Q

effects of water restriction on man

A

increase concentration of blood

decrease volume and difficulty in blood circulation

increase heart rate and rectal temp

increase respiration

tingling and numbness in feet and fingers

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23
Q

effects of water restriction on rats

A

decrease feed intake
decrease gain
decrease feed efficiency
decrease urine volume
decrease body weight
decrease activity

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24
Q

mammals need water at the rate of __________ the weight of feed consumed

A

2-3 times

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25
Q

lactation needs ______ the weight of milk produced

A

4-5 times

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26
Q

retention of 1 gram of protein or glycogen require how much water

A

3g H2O

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27
Q

Retention of 1g of fat requires how much water

A

0.1g H2O

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28
Q

are lipids organic or inorganic

A

organic

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29
Q

a class of compound soluble in organic solvents such as acetone, ether, and chloroform

A

fats/lipids

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30
Q

characteristics about fats

A

vary in size and polarity

hydrophobic

require specialized processing during digestion, absorption, transport, storage, and utilization

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31
Q

most prominent fatty acid

A

triglycerides

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32
Q

carboxylic acid with a long aliphatic tail (chain) which could be saturated or unsaturated

A

Fatty acids

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33
Q

what are fatty acids derived from

A

triglycerides and phospholipids

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34
Q

fatty acids serve as am important source of _____

A

fuel

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35
Q

saturated fatty acids

A

fatty acid with NO double bond

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36
Q

unsaturated fatty acids

A

fatty acid with one or more double bonds

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37
Q

two types of unsaturated fatty acids

A

monounsaturated and polyunsaturated

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38
Q

monounsaturated

A

fatty acid with ONLY ONE double bond

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39
Q

polyunsaturated

A

fatty acid with 2 or more double bonds

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40
Q

esters of fatty acids with glycerol

A

simple lipids

also known as triglycerides

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41
Q

contain fatty acid, nitrogenous base, plus glycerol or sphingosine

A

phospholipids

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42
Q

phospholipid containing the vitamin choline as its nitrogenous base

A

lechithin

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43
Q

substances derived from other lipids by hydrolysis

A

derived lipids

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44
Q

most important derived lipids

A

free fatty acids

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45
Q

other lipids include

A

waxes and steroids

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46
Q

esters of long chain fatty acid and high molecular weight alcohols

A

waxes

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47
Q

steroids

A

cholesterol
hormones
carotenoids
plant pigments
vitamin D precursors

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48
Q

fatty acids have two ends which are

A

the carboxylic acid (-COOH) end
the methyl (CH3) end

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49
Q

the carboxylic acid (-COOH) end is the head or the tail

A

head; beginning

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50
Q

the methyl (CH3) end is the head or the tail

A

tail

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51
Q

how are fatty acids names

A

using the position of the first double bond when counted from the methyl or the n-end

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52
Q

majority of fat in animals is

A

triglycerides

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53
Q

the longer the fatty acid, the _________ the melting point

A

higher

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54
Q

the more double bonds present, what happens to melting point

A

decreases

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55
Q

Are lipids hydrophobic or hydrophilic

A

hydrophobic

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56
Q

why do we need bile

A

Emulsify fat because lipids do not interact with water

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57
Q

fat yields about how much of its weight in fatty acids and glycerol

A

90% fatty acid
10% glycerol

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58
Q

glycerol yields ________ when oxidized

A

4.3 kcal/g

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59
Q

fatty acids yield _______ when oxidized

A

9.4 kcal/g

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60
Q

The predominant fatty acids in fats ingesting by animals are

A

palmitic
stearic
oleic
linoleic

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61
Q

how does the melting point of coconut oil vs corn oil

A

corn: less than 20
coconut: 20-35

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62
Q

are unsaturated fats or saturated fats better for you

A

unsaturated

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63
Q

What happens to double bonds when iodine increases

A

the number of double bonds increase

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64
Q

ruminant fat has a higher proportion of ____________ than pork

A

saturated fatty acids

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65
Q

chicken fat is the most __________ of the animals fats

A

unsaturated

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66
Q

Which animal is the most saturated and the less saturated

A

beef is the most
fish is the least

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67
Q

melting point

A

useful measure of the hardness of a fat

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68
Q

oils

A

liquid at room temperature
examples: corn and soybean oil

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69
Q

fats

A

solid at room temperature
examples: lard and tallow

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70
Q

the more unsaturated, what happens to boiling point

A

decreases

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71
Q

unsaturated fat adds two atoms of iodine at each double bond

A

iodine number

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72
Q

the more unsaturated, what happens to the iodine number

A

increases

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73
Q

number of mg of an alkali as NaOH or KOH required to saponify 1g of fat (indicator of the length of FA chains)

A

saponification number

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74
Q

when fat is boiled with alkali such as NaOH it is split into

A

glycerol and alkali salt of FA

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75
Q

shorter the fatty acid chain, what happens to the saponification number

A

increases

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76
Q

how many carbons is classified as a long FA

A

more than 12

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77
Q

how many carbons is classified as a short FA

A

less than 12

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78
Q

Mg of KOH to neutralize free fatty acid in1 gram of fat

measures the hydrolytic rancidity

A

acid value

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79
Q

acid value increases with ________

A

rancidity

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80
Q

measures the water-soluble, steam volatile fatty acids present

useful for detecting adulterations in butterfat

A

reichert-meissel number

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81
Q

fatty acids of 12 carbons or less are volatile in _______

A

steam

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82
Q

fatty acids with 6 carbons or less are appreciably soluble in ______

A

water

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83
Q

fats can add __________ at the double bonds

A

oxygen

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84
Q

Highly unsaturated acids like linseed oil are ready _______ and this reaction produces a _________

A

oxidized

harder fat

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85
Q

double bonds can add _____ but not as readily as oxygen. this produces a ________ out of a soft unsaturated fat

A

H2
hard saturated fat

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86
Q

double bonds are susceptible to oxidation by _______

A

free radicals

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87
Q

essential fatty acids

A

linoleic
linolenic
arachidonic

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88
Q

essential fatty acids deficiency symptoms

A

scaly skin
necrosis of tail
growth failure, reproduction and lactation affected
death

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89
Q

Can essential fatty acids be synthesized by the body?

A

no

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90
Q

without essential fatty acids get cell deterioration which leads to

A

cell death

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91
Q

early work by _______________ showed that rats on a diet practically devoided of fat developed __________

A

Burr and Burr

EFA deficiency symptoms

92
Q

arachidonic may be synthesized from the key EFA _________

A

linoleic acid

93
Q

in ruminants, where triglycerides are hydrolyzed

A

rumen

94
Q

glycerol is fermented by _______ into ____ acid

A

microbes; propionic

95
Q

in nonruminants, the sole site of fat hydrolysis occurs where

A

small intestine

96
Q

fat enters the _______ and is emulsified via bile salts

A

duodenum

97
Q

the three volatile fatty acids

A

acetic acid
butyric acid
propionic acid

98
Q

what are volatile fatty acids used for

A

to make ATP

99
Q

Glycerol gets converted into

A

butyric acid

100
Q

salts in bile

A

cholic acid
deoxycholic acid
chenodeoxycholic acid
lithocholic

101
Q

Which of the four bile salts are most important/common

A

cholic acid
chenodeoxycholic acid

102
Q

fat is ______ digestible

A

highly

103
Q

Digestibility is influenced by

A

length of carbon chain
state of saturation

104
Q

Longer chains over 18 C does what to digestibility

A

decreases

105
Q

more saturation does what to digestibility

A

decreases

106
Q

Hydrolysis occurs only at

A

the interface between the lipid droplet and aqueous phase

107
Q

the larger the interface the more

A

fat is emulsified

108
Q

bile salts promote _______

A

emulsification

109
Q

Longer than 12 carbons go to what system

A

lyphatic

110
Q

Shorter than 12 carbons may enter the __________ directly

A

portal circulation

111
Q

glycerol is ______ soluble

A

water

112
Q

Monoglycerides and insoluble FA are emulsified to form a submicroscopic complex called ________

A

micelle

113
Q

micelle is absorbed by what cells

A

epithelial that line the mucosa of the intestinal tract

114
Q

While still in mucosal cells, the longer chained fatty acids and monoglycerides are converted back into ________

A

triglycerides

115
Q

Chylomicrons give blood a milky appearance called

A

lipemia

116
Q

Chylomicrons are absorbed into what system via thoracic duct

A

lymphatic

117
Q

What long chained FA and monoglycerides are converted to when surrounded by lipoprotein

A

chylomicrons

118
Q

lipid in the body is stored mainly in the ________ form

A

triglyceride

119
Q

most storage of lipids occurs in what tissue

A

adipose

120
Q

lipid deposited in the adipose tissue can be two sources

A

dietary
synthesized by the animal

121
Q

Any substance capable of forming acetyl CoA is a potential source of

A

carbon atoms for the process of FA synthesis (lipogenesis)

122
Q

types of fat

A

white
brown

123
Q

glycerol by itself is metabolized as a

A

CHO

124
Q

catabolism of fatty acids

A

enters glycolytic pathway via alpha glycerol phosphate
catabolized to pyruvate
condenses with CoASH to form acetyl CoA
enters citric acid cycle for complete oxidation

125
Q

during complete catabolism of glycerol,how many ATP are formed

A

22

126
Q

ketosis body chemical situation

A

high blood ketones
high urine ketones (spill out of blood)
low blood glucose
depleted glycogen reserves

127
Q

what group of animal is ketosis common in

A

ruminants

128
Q

biochemical cause of ketosis

A

don’t have a good source of glucose causing us to use lipids

129
Q

in ruminants, ketosis or acetonemia is a pregnancy disease in _________

A

dairy cows
sheep

130
Q

Ketosis occurs shortly after calving or lambing due to

A

high nutrient demand in late gestation
stress of birth
nutrient demand in lactation
possible hormonal changes

131
Q

symptoms of ketosis in ruminants

A

decreased feed intake
decreased milk production
cant stand (glucose deficient in brain–coma and death)

132
Q

is there a cure for ketosis

A

not known

133
Q

ketosis prevention

A

Feed extra energy late in gestation

134
Q

Lipids (micelles) absorption occurs via

A

passive diffusion

135
Q

why doesn’t feeding glucose to ruminants work

A

it’s converted to VFA’s then to acetate

136
Q

large part of ATP in nonruminants come from

A

glucose

137
Q

large part of ATP in ruminants come from

A

VFA

138
Q

measure of energy values of food and feedstuffs for animals

A

direct energy measurements
indirect energy measurements

139
Q

TDN stands for

A

total digestable nutrients

140
Q

examples of direct energy measurements

A

digestbile energy
metabolizable energy
net energy

141
Q

example of indirect energy estimates

A

TDN

142
Q

order of energy distribution in the body

A

gross energy
digestible energy
metabolizable energy
net energy (m/p)
net energy production

143
Q

between gross energy and digestable energy, what is lost

A

fecal energy

144
Q

Between digestible energy and metabolizable energy what is lost

A

urinary and gas

145
Q

between metabolizable energy and net energy(m/p) what is lost

A

heat increment

146
Q

between net energy and net energy production what is lost

A

energy for maintence

147
Q

the total amount of heat that is released when a substance is completely oxidized in a bomb calorimeter containing 25-30 atmospheres of o2

measured in calories

A

gross energy

148
Q

digestible energy

A

attempts to measure gross metabolic functions

149
Q

Fecal energy reflects

A

undigested food
bacteria cell residue
metabolic energy from endogenous sources

150
Q

digestible energy equation

A

DE=GE-Fecal Energy

151
Q

Energy loss as gaseous product digestion results primarily from

A

microbial metabolism in the rumen

152
Q

metabolizable energy

A

provides a more satisfactory measure of nutritive value than TDN or DE

153
Q

poultry metabolizable energy is more easily determined than DE because

A

feces and urine are excreted as one product

154
Q

metabolizable energy equation

A

ME=GE-(Fecal energy +UE+GPD)

155
Q

ruminant gaseous losses are _______ than urinary

A

greater

156
Q

gaseous losses of energy are greater on

A

roughages

157
Q

urinary energy losses in pigs and cattle

A

2-3% pig
4-6% cow

158
Q

in ruminants, an average figure is around _______ of the total energy intake

A

8%

159
Q

low quality forages yield a _________ percentage loss of energy as methane

A

greater

160
Q

portion available for sustenance of life and productive purposes-tissue, maintenance and growth, milk, eggs, wool, and work

A

net energy

161
Q

The continual outgo of heat from the body, which is minimum in the postabsorptive state in a thermoneutral environment and increases the amount of food consumed

A

heat increment

162
Q

two parts of heat increment

A

heat of fermentation
heat of nutrient metabolism

163
Q

produced in the GI tract as a result of microbial action
much larger in ruminants than nonruminants
cannot be determined directly

A

heat of fermentation

164
Q

heat above the basal metabolism that occurs in the utilization of the absorbed nutrients

A

heat of nutrtient metabolism

165
Q

factors affecting heat increment

A

kind of food fed
balance of diet
effect of temperature on HI

166
Q

what class of nutrients has the lowest GE and which has the highest

A

lowest= carbs
highest= protein

167
Q

why does heat increment reduce at low temps

A

at below or lower critical temperature HI is reduced because of its use for the maintenance of body temp

168
Q

by shifting acetic to ________ should increase efficiency

A

propinoic

b/c lowest heat lost

169
Q

fraction of net energy expended to keep the animal in energy equilibrium

animals tissues aren’t gaining or losing

A

the net energy of maintenance

170
Q

What is net energy composed of

A

basal metabolism
voluntary activity
heat to warm body or cool the body

171
Q

basal metabolism

A

the function of body size
energy expended by animals under basal conditions

172
Q

Energy expended by the animal under basal conditions include

A

thermoneutral environment
resting conditions
post-absorptive state
sexual repose
consciousness

173
Q

basal metabolism is used for

A

circulation
respiration
kidney function
general musculature (highest percentage)

174
Q

amount of energy needed to replace the energy expended in getting up, moving about to obtain food, grazing, drinking, laying down

A

voluntary activity

175
Q

The extra heat needed to keep the animal’s body warm when the environment is below the critical temperature

energy to keep the body cool, extra energy expended by the animal when the environmental temperature is above the zone of thermal neutrality

A

thermal regulation

176
Q

net energy for production

A

net energy required for involuntary work or for tissue gain, or production of milk, eggs, wool etc

177
Q

homeotherms

A

an animal that must keep body temp pretty constant to maintain life processes

178
Q

critical temperature

A

point at which a homeotherm must initiate additional reactions to maintain normal body temperature

179
Q

zone of therm neutrality (TNZ)

A

range where the supporting functions of the body are generating enough heat to maintain body temperature, but not enough to cause stress in the animal

180
Q

the first law of thermodynamics

A

law of conservation of energy

“the total energy of a system and its surroundings remain constant. Can change form but cant be created or destroyed”

181
Q

in animal metabolism we are concerned with the utilization of

A

chemical energy

182
Q

oxidation

A

loss of electrons

183
Q

reduction

A

gain of electrons

184
Q

what mineral is used in energy trapping

A

phosphorus

185
Q

two types of bonds of phosphorus

A

low energy (3kcal)
high energy (7.3kcal)

186
Q

the compounds in the body that traps energy and later releases it when needed is one that has high energy phosphate bonds called

A

ATP

187
Q

in the muscles there is very little_____ but there is a liable source of ____________ used to replenish ATP used

A

ATP
high energy phosphate

188
Q

start with one compound and metabolize it to a second compound, the net change in energy will be the same no matter how many steps

A

law of hess

189
Q

the step by step process in the metabolism insures the capture of __________% of energy in the useful form of ______the rest in lost in

A

40-60%
ATP
heat

190
Q

byproduct of metabolism and is beneficial to the animal in maintain body temperature

A

heat

191
Q

the overall ability of the animal body to convert potential energy of food to mechanical work amounts to only _________ percent of its total available energy

A

20-25

192
Q

Involves what occurs to nutrients within the cell

A

intermediary metabolism of CHO

193
Q

main three steps glucose must go through to make 38 ATP

A

glycolysis
TCA cycle
Electron transport chain/oxidation

194
Q

glycolysis

A

anaerobic (absence of oxygen)

occurs in cytoplasm

more primitive type of metabolism to generate energy; typical of that of microbes

converts 2 glucose into two pyruvate

195
Q

used in the synthesis of ATP, NAD, FAD, RNA,DNA and others

A

ribose

196
Q

important in biosynthetic reactions

A

NADPH

197
Q

important in generating ATP in electron transport

A

NADH

198
Q

the flow of glucose through glycolysis is regulated by the need for

A

NADPH and ribose

199
Q

TCA cycle

A

aerobic (presence of oxygen)
occurs in mitochondria
more advanced system typical of higher-order organisms

200
Q

ATP is formed as electrons are transferred from NADH + H+ or FADH2 to O2 by a series of electron carriers called cytochrome

located on the inner membrane of mitochondria

A

electron transport chain

(process called oxidation phosphorylation)

201
Q

Having a series of cytochromes generates

A

more than one ATP

202
Q

e- of H last from intermediate
the energy liberated and trapped as ATP

A

oxidation taking place

203
Q

kinase

A

consumption or release of phosphorus (ATP)

204
Q

where is glucokinase found

A

only in liver

205
Q

where is hexokinase found

A

in all cells (muscle)

206
Q

isomerase

A

rearrangment of structure within the same compound

207
Q

what coenzyme do kinase require

A

Mg2+

208
Q

about how much ATP is formed in TCA cycle

A

24 ATP
(~2/3)

209
Q

Intermediates in TCA are important in the synthesis of

A

nonessential amino acids

210
Q

the major source of energy for the ruminant
part of the energy source of the horse

A

metabolism of VFA’s

211
Q

the primary VFA
metabolized by muscle and adipose tissue
enters kreb cycle via acetyl CoA

A

Acetate

212
Q

the secondary VFA
metabolized by liver
enters kreb cycle via succinyl CoA
only VFA which can yield blood glucose

A

propinoate

213
Q

least important VFA
metabolized by the rumen epithelium and liver

A

butyrate

214
Q

the major pathway of respiration in aerobic organisms

A

citric acid cycle

215
Q

bioenergetic constant: Phosphate bond

A

7.3 kcal/mole

216
Q

bioenergetic constant: e- (&H) carried on FAD

A

yields 2 ATP

217
Q

bioenergetic constant:e- (&H) carried on NAD

A

yields 3 ATP

218
Q

bioenergetic constant:One “turn” of the TCA cycle

A

yields 12 ATP

219
Q

bioenergetic constant:One “clipping” of acetyl CoA from FA

A

yields 5 ATP

220
Q

blood chemical situation of ketosis

A
  1. High blood ketones
  2. High urine ketones - spill out of blood →urine
  3. Low blood glucose
  4. Depleted glycogen reserves
221
Q

Intermediates provide means whereby amino acids for protein can be

A

oxidized
used to form GLU for other tissues like the brain
glucogenesis

222
Q

glucogenesis

A

glucose from non CHO (primarily protein) occurs in the liver via reverse glycolysis

223
Q

summary of output from TCA cycle

A

3 NADH (18 ATP)
1 FADH (4 ATP)
1 GTP (2 ATP)
2 CO2 (4CO2)

224
Q

how many ATP is produced by glycolysis

A

4 ATP
net: 2 ATP

225
Q

net production of ATP in the ruminant

A

acetate: 10 ATP
propionate: 18 ATP
butyrate: 25 ATP

Nutrition (14 decks)

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