Mycology 1 Flashcards
Mycology?
* Is the branch of biology dealing with ?; it includes the study of a great number of ?-cellular, ?cellular or microscopic organisms. It includes their ? and ? properties, their taxonomy and uses, plus dangers to ? and animals
- Fungus?
- Organism without ?, with nucleus, producing ?; reproducing sexually (perfect) or asexually (imperfect); whose filamentous and branching somatic structures have evolved with cell ? containing ? or ? or both
THINGS BELOW V USEFUL IN DIAGNOSTICS!
D-Glucose units
β(1→#?)-? bonds
CHITIN useful for specific staining i.e. diagnostic (tells that the specific thing could be fungi)
Mycology?
* Is the branch of biology dealing with fungi; it includes the study of a great number of multi-cellular, unicellular or microscopic organisms. It includes their genetic and biochemical properties, their taxonomy and uses, plus dangers to humans and animals
- Fungus
- Organism without chlorophyll, with nucleus, producing spores; reproducing sexually (perfect) or asexually (imperfect); whose filamentous and branching somatic structures have evolved with cell wall containing cellulose or chitin or both
(Chitin exists in the shells of arthropods such as crabs, shrimps, and insects and is also produced by fungi and bacteria
cellulose in many plant cell walls)
D-Glucose units (each subunit)
β(1→4)-glycosidic bonds
CHITIN useful for specific staining i.e. diagnostic
Fungus (pl. Fungi)
- Greek “mykes” – mushroom
- ~ 1 ? different species of fungi
Only ~ ? are described - Taxonomy of fungi is in a state of ?
Fungus (pl. Fungi)
- Greek “mykes” – mushroom
- ~ 1 million different species of fungi
Only ~ 70,000 are described - Taxonomy of fungi is in a state of flux (continuous change)
microspora: sister groups of FUNGI so are up there with fungi (placed them down there before; reasoning maybe mitochondrial endosymbiosis; so might have been there before mitochondria but later found out that they don’t have mitochondria or peroxisomes, they don’t have the machinery to do it and are parasites).
(online: Molecular phylogenetic data indicate that the Microsporidia are related to the Fungi, lack mitochondria (earlier thought to have mitochondria) and are not primitive eukaryotes)
**UNIKONTS
(charles darwin, mushroom and amoeba, obvious grouping - in UNIKONT)
Unikonts include amoebozoa and ** ? ** (FUNGI and animals)
Fungi are a relatively ? evolved taxa, at least compared to most other potential veterinary and medical pathogens, including ? ?
Stramenopiles: (?) Algae, kelp to diatoms & Oomycetes (? molds)
Excava”te”s: amitochondriate flagella”te”s, amoeboflagellates, Euglenozoa
Forams: large group of amoeboid ? with reticulating pseudopods
Cercozoa: amoeboids and flagellates that feed by means of filose pseudopods, includes Halposporidians
**UNIKONTS
(charles darwin, mushroom and amoeba, obvious grouping - in UNIKONT)
Unikonts: amoebozoa and ** OPISTHOKONTS ** (FUNGI and animals)
(- The opisthokonts are a broad group of eukaryotes, including both the animal and fungus kingdoms. The opisthokonts, previously called the “Fungi/Metazoa group)
Fungi are a relatively highly evolved taxa, at least compared to most other potential veterinary and medical pathogens, including protist parasites
Stramenopiles: (Heterokonts) Algae, kelp to diatoms & Oomycetes (water molds)
Excavates: amitochondriate flagellates, amoeboflagellates, Euglenozoa
Forams: large group of amoeboid protists with reticulating pseudopods
Cercozoa: amoeboids and flagellates that feed by means of filose pseudopods, includes Halposporidians
in the chart, now microsporidia in the proper place along with fungi!
Oomycetes in stramenopiles will be talked about later - these look like fungal diseases, some are zoonotic!
are there more beneficial or harmful effects of fungi?
Beneficial Effects of Fungi
1. * ? * - nutrient and carbon recycling.
2. * ? * factories. The fermentation property is used for the industrial productionof alcohols, fats, citric, oxalic and gluconic acids.
3. Important sources of * ? , such as Penicillin.
4. * ? * for biochemical and genetic studies. eg: Neurospora crassa
5. Saccharomyces cerviciae is extensively used in ** ? ***, which includes the Hepatitis B Vaccine.
6. Some fungi are * ? * (mushrooms).
7. Yeasts provide ? supplements such as vitamins and cofactors.
8. Penicillium is used to * ? * Roquefort and Camembert cheeses.
9. Ergot produced by Claviceps purpurea contains medically important ? that help in inducing uterine contractions, controlling bleeding and treating ?.
10. Fungi (Leptolegnia caudate and Aphanomyces laevis) are used as biocontrols against ? in paddy fields and thus help in ? control.
IMP all!! HARMFUL EFFECTS OF FUNGI
1. ? of food, lumber, paper, and cloth.
2. Animal and human ?, including allergies.
3. ? produced by poisonous mushrooms and within food (Mycetism and Mycotoxicosis).
4. Plant ?.
5. ? of agriculture produce such as
vegetables and cereals.
6. ? the products such as magnetic tapes
and disks, glass lenses, marble statues, bones and wax.
are there more beneficial or harmful effects of fungi? - MORE BENEFICIAL!
BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF FUNGI
emphasized
- recombinant DNA technology typically with yeasts which are fungi!
- edible, nutritional supplements
- malaria control
- Fungi (Leptolegnia caudate and Aphanomyces laevis -> THESE 2 ARE ACTUALLY “STRAMENOPILES” and not fungi) are used as biocontrols against mosquito larvae in paddy fields and thus help in malaria control.
BENEFICIAL Effects of Fungi
1. * decomposition * - nutrient and carbon recycling.
2. * biosynthetic * factories. The fermentation property is used for the industrial productionof alcohols, fats, citric, oxalic and gluconic acids.
3. Important sources of * antibiotics , such as Penicillin.
4. * model organisms * for biochemical and genetic studies. eg: Neurospora crassa
5. Saccharomyces cerviciae is extensively used in ** recombinant DNA technology ***, which includes the Hepatitis B Vaccine.
6. Some fungi are * edible * (mushrooms).
7. Yeasts provide nutritional supplements such as vitamins and cofactors.
8. Penicillium is used to * flavour * Roquefort and Camembert cheeses.
9. Ergot produced by Claviceps purpurea contains medically important alkaloids that help in inducing uterine contractions, controlling bleeding and treating migraine.
10. Fungi (Leptolegnia caudate and Aphanomyces laevis) are used as biocontrols against musquito larvae in paddy fields and thus help in malaria control.
IMP all!! HARMFUL EFFECTS OF FUNGI
1. DESTRUCTION of food, lumber, paper, and cloth.
2. Animal and human DISEASES, including allergies.
3. TOXIN produced by poisonous mushrooms and within food (Mycetism and Mycotoxicosis).
4. Plant DISEASES.
5. SPOILAGE of agriculture produce such as
vegetables and cereals.
6. DAMAGE the products such as magnetic tapes and disks, glass lenses, marble statues, bones and wax.
Post-harvest fruit-rot “botrytis” - Botrytis cinerea
From ancient Greek
‘botrys’ meaning ? and
‘itis’ for ?
And then a lot of the produce, like lemons, get botrytis too (a lot of them are then waxed and treated and pulses of crap on them that, you know, make them so attractive to eat anymore
Corn smut: In Mexico, corn smut is known as huitlacoche
Corn smut is a plant disease caused by the pathogenic fungus Ustilago ? that causes ? (a fungal disease) on maize.
Considered a big problem in parts of the north, and has been almost eradicated from most corn crops.
In Mexico is a ?!!
When grown in the lab on media, it behaves like ?, forming ? cells.
From ancient Greek
‘botrys’ meaning grape and
‘itis’ for disease so grape disease
And then a lot of the produce, like lemons, get botrytis too (a lot of them are then waxed and treated and pulses of crap on them that, you know, make them so attractive to eat anymore
E.G. OF FUNGI DAMAGING THINGS
Corn smut: In Mexico, corn smut is known as huitlacoche
Corn smut is a plant disease caused by the pathogenic fungus Ustilago maydis that causes smut (a fungal disease) on maize.
Considered a big problem in parts of the north, and has been almost eradicated from most corn crops.
In Mexico is a delicacy!!
When grown in the lab on media, it behaves like yeast, forming single cells.
FUNGI PRODUCE INTERESTING COMPOUNDS! - here e.g. of health product
Fungi produce toxins, mycotoxins
the chemical formula is called “?” - extracted from ? mushrooms:
- given to people with ?, high LDL or HDL?
FUNGI PRODUCE INTERESTING COMPOUNDS!
Fungi produce toxins, mycotoxins
the chemical formula is called “statin” - extracted from oyster mushrooms:
- given to people with high blood cholestrol level, high LDL
So the low-density lipoprotein (LDL) is considered to be the poor one versus HDL (where cholesterol is sent to kidneys? to be eliminated)
Name in pic: O shouldn’t be capatilize
FUNGI ALSO PRODUCE TOXINS!
Poisonous mushrooms
- Amanita ? (? cap)
- Psilocybe semilanceata (? cap or ‘?’)
- Amanita ? (fly ?)
FUNGI ALSO PRODUCE TOXINS!
Poisonous mushrooms
- Amanita phalloides (Death cap) - phalloi”de”s “De”ath cap
- Psilocybe semilanceata (liberty cap or ‘magic mushroom’) - will mess w ur mind
- Amanita muscaria (fly agaric) - v disney-ish looking (the nordic tribes used to eat this and it made them berserk/crazy: northern fairytales) - not as fatal as first one
Chlorophyllum molybdites, which has the common names of ? parasol, ? parasol and ‘?’
The Edible Parasol Mushroom/Lepiota (Macrolepiota procera)
(are green-spored parasol so if put on paper then spores come out (yellowishing thing in bottom left image))
Chlorophyllum molybdites, which has the common names of false parasol, green-spored parasol and ‘vomiter’
THE FALSE PARASOL OR GREEN-SPORED MUSHROOM IS A POISONOUS MUSHROOM THAT IS THE MOST COMMON CAUSE OF MUSHROOM POISONING IN THE US!
Entomopathogenic Fungi as Biocontrol Agents against insect pests
White ? disease
Fungus’s ? land on insects and infects insect and produce ?, then ? are released and infect another host or persist in ?!
fungus:
Metarhizium anisopliae (not specific)
Beauveria bassiana
Entomopathogenic Fungi as Biocontrol Agents against insect pests (“ent”omapathogenic.. ent sounds like ant)
White muscardine disease
Fungus’s spores land on insects and infect insect and produce spores, then spores are released and infect another host or persist in the soil!
These are considered bio-pesticides as killing them naturally, however, they aren’t specific and are less targeted thus similar to chemical pesticides.
Just know that there’s lots of diff. groups (chitridiomycota: amphibians) and reminder what heterotroph is! SEE PIC in ans.
Heterotroph: an organism that must ingest or absorbs organic ? in order to be able to produce ? and synthesize compounds to maintain its ?
Heterotroph: an organism that must ingest or absorbs organic C in order to be able to produce energy and synthesize compounds to maintain its existence!
General characteristics of fungi
- Fungi are ** prokaryotic or eukaryotic? ** organisms: cells contain ? cell organelles including nuclei, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes etc.
- IMP! Their rigid Cell Wall contain: ** ?, ? and ?** – ?-glucans are medically important as
they are a drug target for some anti fungals (prevents osmotic lysis and protects against mechanical injury and entrance of harmful macromolecules); (non-motile) - Cell membrane contain ** ? (IMP! ?) **
- 80S ribosomes
in fungi which sterol is present? <- this is targeted!
General characteristics of fungi
- Fungi are ** eukaryotic ** organisms: cells contain membrane bound cell organelles including nuclei, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes etc.
- IMP! Their rigid Cell Wall contain: ** GLUCAN, MANNAN and CHITIN ** – beta-glucans are medically important as they are a drug target for some anti-fungals (prevents osmotic lysis and protects against mechanical injury and entrance of harmful macromolecules); (non-motile)
- Cell membrane contain ** sterols (IMP! ERGOSTEROL specifically) **
- 80S ribosomes
in fungi the sterol is = ERGOSTEROL <- this is targeted!
General characteristics of fungi
* The most common body structures are ? filaments (?) and ? cells (?)
* Some species grow as either filaments or yeasts; others grow as both (dimorphic)
* Reproduction- ? (perfect) and ? (imperfect)
* produce ?
- The most common body structures are multicellular filaments (molds) and single cells (yeasts)
- Some species grow as either filaments or yeasts; others grow as both (dimorphic)
- Reproduction- sexual (perfect) and asexual (imperfect)
- produce SPORES!
Which among the 2 contain heterotrophs?
FUNGI and Bacteria
BOTH are heterotrophs
fungi:
heterotrophs; aerobic, facultatively anaerobic
bacteria:
Heterotrophic, autotrophic, photosynthetic; aerobic, anaerobic, facultative anaerobic
ISOLATION OF FUNGAL ORGANISMS
Most grow in ? media at 20-25 C
- sabouraud’s dextrose (SabDex) agar
Some grow in Blood agar in the yeast phase at 37 C
(Fungi grow in all sorts of different rates so what grows might not be the pathogen u are looking for, might not be the pathogen u want
yeast phage in the red one so this would be more mammalian body temp. i.e. 37 C and other green one is more ambient temp.)
- Fungi can form 2 types of colonies:
a) ? - mold
b) ? form - yeast (superfically look more like bacteria but smell yeasty)
Most grow in common media at 20-25 C
- sabouraud’s dextrose (SabDex) agar
- Fungi can form 2 types of colonies:
a) filamentous - mold
b) yeast form - yeast (superfically look more like bacteria but smell yeasty)
Mold
** IMP Macroscopic **:
- ? rate (fast, moderate and slow)
- ? appearance: texture and shine
- presence of ?: colony colour
- colony ?
Mold - ** IMP Microscopic **
* Vegetative mycelium: develops inside the ?; provides support, and absorbs ?
Fungal filaments Hypha = Growth of a hypha from a spore (see pic)
mass of hyphae collectively make up the ?
- Reproductive mycelium: differentiation to support the ? bodies, ?
- “two kinds of hyphae:” IMP!! (-> this also helps in DIAGNOSTICS! if mixed infection then both types of hypha present).
(a) Septate hypha
(b) Non septate hypha
✓The septa (cross walls) divide the hyphae into ? but not into cells (can see in image)
✓In some groups nuclei and/or ? can flow through a hole or pore in the center of these ?
Mold
** Macroscopic **:
- growth rate (fast, moderate and slow)
- colony appearance: texture and shine
- presence of pigment: colony colour
- colony morphology
Mold - ** IMP Microscopic **
* Vegetative mycelium: develops inside the substrate; provides support, and absorbs nutrients
Fungal filaments Hypha = Growth of a hypha from a spore (see pic)
mass of hyphae collectively make up the Mycelium
- Reproductive mycelium: differentiation to support the fruiting bodies, propagules
(in the environmental stage, it’s very robust,
It can be in the environment for a long time, but when conditions allow, it will germinate and hyphae will grow from that.
And it’ll be then in some sort of place where it can absorb nutrients and it will go from there.)
- “two kinds of hyphae:” IMP!!
(a) Septate hypha
(b) Non septate hypha
✓The septa (cross walls) divide the hyphae into compartments but not into cells (can see in image)
✓In some groups nuclei and/or cytoplasm can flow through a hole or pore in the center of these septa!
Structures – filamentous –
summary
- Mold and Fleshy Fungi
- Body = “? which consists of Hyphae”
- Hyphae = Long ? of cells joined together
- Vegetative hyphae obtain ?
- Aerial hyphae bear ? structures
- Mycelium= ? mass of hyphae
(For larger fungi we still have the mycelium in the substrate (underground) and the thing above ground is the ‘fruiting body’ so spores would come out of the gills
- HYPHAE: each of the branching filaments that make up the mycelium of a fungus.
- THALLUS: hyphae joined together)
Structures – filamentous –
summary
- Mold and Fleshy Fungi
- Body = “thallus”
- thallus consists of Hyphae
- Hyphae = Long filaments of cells joined together
- Vegetative hyphae obtain nutrients
- Aerial hyphae bear reproductive structures
- Mycelium= filamentous mass of hyphae
Yeast - pic
** Dimorphic fungi **
* Change from ? form (at room temperature) to ? (at 37°C or in the tissues of animals)
Dimorphism is regulated by factors such as * ? * (typically), CO2 concentration, ?, and the levels of ? or other ?-containing compounds
FUNGAL REPRODUCTION
Sexual:
* Only demonstrated in most or few? fungi
* * Fusion of two haploid nuclei followed by ** ? ** division of the diploid nucleus *
Asexual:
* Very effective
* Division of nuclei by * ? * (NOT ? like for sexual) and subsequent cell division by an individual fungus
Three basic mechanisms of asexual:
* ? followed by germination of
the spores
Aspergillus and Penicillium
- ?
Coccidioides immitis - ? of ? cells
Candida and Cryptococcus
Asexual, sexual -> which is most common/more effective?
Yeast - pic
** Dimorphic fungi **
* Change from “m”ycelial form (at roo”m” temperature) to yeast (at 37°C or in the tissues of animals)
Dimorphism is regulated by factors such as * TEMPERATURE * (typically), CO2 concentration, pH, and the levels of cysteine or other sulfhydryl-containing compounds
FUNGAL REPRODUCTION
Sexual:
* Only demonstrated in few fungi
* * Fusion of two haploid nuclei followed by ** MEIOTIC ** division of the diploid nucleus *
Asexual:
* Very effective
* Division of nuclei by * MITOSIS * (NOT meiosis like for sexual) and subsequent cell division by an individual fungus
Three basic mechanisms of asexual:
* SPORULATION followed by germination of
the spores
Aspergillus and Penicillium
- Fragmentation of hyphae * Coccidioides immitis
- BUDDING of yeast cells
Candida and Cryptococcus
Asexual, sexual -> which is most common/more effective? ASEXUAL!
Fungal diseases are classified according to the ? into the host and the ? involvement
for tissue involvement, lot of it is cutaneous:
1. ? (on skin, hair, nails)
2. ? (within skin, hair, nails)
3. ? (beneath skin) - more serious like the one in pic (sporotrichosis)
Deep mycoses can be systemic mycoses - brain, lungs, heart, spleen, liver and kidney
Routes of entry: nasal sinuses, lungs, blood vessels, esophagus, stomach, intestine, skin (spores in air -> clear route of entry, needles -> blood vessels and into skin)
Fungal diseases are classified according to the mode of entry into the host and the degree of tissue involvement
for tissue involvement, lot of it is cutaneous:
1. superficial (on skin, hair, nails)
2. cutaneous (within skin, hair, nails)
3. subcutaneous (beneath skin) - more serious like the one in pic (sporotrichosis)
Dermatophytes
Microsporum and Trichophyton
Ringworm – superficial ? infection, commonly caused by the fungus Trichophyton rubrum in humans
there are anthropophillic (man) human reservoirs, zoophilic (animal) dermatophytes, geophillic (soil/environmental) dermatophytes
PATHOLOGY
INITIAL phase: subclinical or mild host response
- hypertrophy of the stratum ? with accelerated keratinization and exfoliation
- ? appearance and some hair loss (alopecia)
LATER phase: more pronounced inflammatory response
- ranges from erythema to vesiculopustular reactions and suppuration
- roughly circular pattern of the lesions and their inflamed margins suggested the terms ? and ?
ringworm usually regresses spontaneously within a few ? or months
Dermatophytes
Microsporum and Trichophyton
Ringworm – superficial dermatophyte infection, commonly caused by the fungus Trichophyton rubrum in humans
there are anthropophillic (man) human reservoirs, zoophilic (animal) dermatophytes, geophillic (soil/environmental) dermatophytes
PATHOLOGY
INITIAL phase: subclinical or mild host response
- hypertrophy of the stratum corneum with accelerated keratinization and exfoliation
- scruffy appearance (cat in pic) and some hair loss (alopecia)
LATER phase: more pronounced inflammatory response
- ranges from erythema to vesiculopustular reactions and suppuration
- roughly circular pattern of the lesions and their inflamed margins suggested the terms RINGWORM and TINEA
ringworm usually regresses spontaneously within a few weeks or months
dimorphic fungi: u’ve got both yeast like cells and filamentous hyphae
rabbit hole has spores: dog puts head in and gets the spores
blastomycosis or blasto as its often called is a v serious and potentially deadly, systemic fungal disease that can affect dogs, humans and other mammals. Blasto is caused by inhaling the spores of the fungus Blastomycetes dermatitis. B. dermatitis grows as a mold in acidic, organically rich sandy soils, decaying wood and other vegetation!
- not ZOONOTIC or contagious between dogs (needs to be directly taken)
Antifungal Drug Mechanisms
✓**Polyene Antifungal Drugs
* Amphotericin B, nystatin, and pimaricin interact with * ? (Ergosterol) in the cell ? *
✓ Azole Antifungal Drugs
* Fluconazole, itraconazole, and ketoconazole inhibit cytochrome P450-dependent enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of ? **
✓Allylamine and Morpholine Antifungal Drugs
* Allylamines (naftifine, terbinafine) inhibit ? biosynthesis
✓Antimetabolite Antifungal Drugs
* 5-Fluorocytosine acts as an inhibitor of both ? and ? synthesis
Antifungal Drug Mechanisms
✓**Polyene Antifungal Drugs
* Amphotericin B, nystatin, and pimaricin interact with * sterols (Ergosterol) in the cell membrane *
✓ Azole Antifungal Drugs
* Fluconazole, itraconazole, and ketoconazole inhibit cytochrome P450-dependent enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of ergosterol **
✓Allylamine and Morpholine Antifungal Drugs
* Allylamines (naftifine, terbinafine) inhibit ergosterol biosynthesis
✓Antimetabolite Antifungal Drugs
* 5-Fluorocytosine acts as an inhibitor of both DNA and RNA synthesis
Culture
- Sabouraud’s destrose (SabDex) agar at 25 degree C for up to 3 weeks
- ? Test Medium (DTM) +/- Rapid Sporulation Medium
- phenol red indicator
- beware of false positives
- molecular techniques
Culture
- Sabouraud’s destrose (SabDex) agar at 25 degree C for up to 3 weeks
- Dermatophyte Test Medium (DTM) +/- Rapid Sporulation Medium
- phenol red indicator
- beware of false positives
(but you never really know if you’re culturing the primary pathogen because there’s such a differential between the way some fungi grow)
- molecular techniques
(recall: dimorphic fungi not zoonotic, altho humans can catch this infection)
