Integrative system (Part 1)

Question 1

refers to processes—such a
summation and coordination— that produce coherency and result in harmonious function.

Answer 1

Integration

Question 2

refers to the selective combination and processing
of sensory, endocrine, and central nervous system (CNS) information in ways that promote the harmonious functioning of the whole.

Answer 2

Whole-animal integration

Question 3

The ___ sets the level of a variable (temperature, blood pressure, muscle force, and so on) that is being controlled.

Answer 3

control system

Question 4

____is a cell that is specially adapted to generate an electrical signal—most often in the form of a brief, self-propagating impulse called an ____—that travels from place to place in the cell.

Answer 4

neuron; action potential

Question 5

A neuron receives input—signals from other neurons or sensory cells—at specialized cell–cell contact points called ___

Answer 5

synapses.

Question 6

____ – nucleus and metabolic center of the cell

Answer 6

Cell body

Question 7

____ – fibers that extend from the cell body (dendrites and axons)

Answer 7

Processes

Question 8

___ – relay sensory signals to integrative centers of the CNS

Answer 8

Afferent Neuron

Question 9

____ – relay control signals (instructions) from the CNS to target cells that are under nervous control, such as muscle cells or secretory cells

Answer 9

Efferent Neuron

Question 10

release hormones into the blood

Answer 10

Endocrine cells

Question 11

Endocrine control has two essential features:

Answer 11

slow; broadcast.

Question 12

______ such as neurons, muscle fibers, and a few others can generate electrical signals.

Answer 12

Excitable cells

Question 13

are one of the most important kinds of electrical signals underlying the integrative activity of nervous systems.

Answer 13

Action potentials

Question 14

_____result from voltage-dependent changes in membrane
permeabilities to ions

Answer 14

Action potentials

Question 15

An ____ is initiated by a change in the resting membrane potential, specifically by a ____ sufficiently strong to open the voltage-gated channels.

Answer 15

action potential; depolarization

Question 16

results from intense, localized increases in permeabilities to specific ions

Answer 16

action potential

Question 17

Action potentials are propagated along the axons of neurones via ___

Answer 17

local currents

Question 18

____ induce depolarisation of the adjacent axonal membrane.

Answer 18

Local currents

Question 19

areas of the membrane that have recently depolarised will not depolarise again due to the ____

Answer 19

refractory period

Question 20

The ability to store charge

Answer 20

Membrane Capacitance

Question 21

The lower capacitance results in a ___ before the threshold is no longer reached.

Answer 21

greater distance

Question 22

This depends on the number of ion channels open.

Answer 22

Membrane Resistance

Question 23

The ___ the number of channels open, the ___ membrane resistance is

Answer 23

lower; greater

Question 24

The ___ controls predominantly the fine, rapid movements of discrete muscles, the ____ typically controls more widespread, prolonged activities such as metabolic changes.

Answer 24

nervous system; endocrine system

Question 25

is a specialized site of contact of a neuron with another neuron.

Answer 25

Synapse

Question 26

Neurons are typically separated by a ___ (nm) space called the ___

Answer 26

20- to 30-nanometer; synaptic cleft.

Question 27

a presynaptic signal—usually an action potential— affects a postsynaptic cell.

Answer 27

Synaptic transmission

Question 28

Refers to the ability to change the functional properties of synapses.

Answer 28

Synapse Transmission

Question 29

can change the synapse itself to make it stronger or weaker, and they can also produce long-lasting changes
in postsynaptic cell

Answer 29

Synaptic actions

Question 30

A___can work chemically or electrically.

Answer 30

synapse

Question 31

can act immediately and directly on the membrane potential of the postsynaptic cell, or they can have indirect and longer-lasting effects

Answer 31

Synapses

Question 32

electric currents from one cell flow directly into the next cell, changing its membrane potential

Answer 32

Electrical Synapse

Question 33

electrical synapses are found in ____ where speed is most important, and where synchronous activity of several cells is an advantage

Answer 33

nervous systems

Question 34

The major structural specialization for electrical transmission is the

Answer 34

gap junction

Question 35

is a specialized locus where protein channels bridge the gap between two cells, directly connecting their cytoplasm.

Answer 35

Gap Junction

Question 36

provide a low-resistance path for current flow, electrically coupling the cells that they join.

Answer 36

Gap junctions

Question 37

These receptors produce fast changes in membrane potential (depolarization or hyperpolarization) by directly increasing permeability to ions

Answer 37

Ionotropic receptors

Question 38

These receptors have relatively slow, long-lasting modulatory effects on synaptic processes

Answer 38

Metabotropic receptors

Question 39

These receptors trigger a signaling cascade of second messengers in the postsynaptic cell

Answer 39

Metabotropic receptors

Question 40

is an increase in the probability that a cell will generate an impulse

Answer 40

Excitation

Question 41

____causes an increase in the impulse frequency.

Answer 41

Excitation

Question 42

is a decrease in the probability of impulse generation or a decrease in impulse frequency.

Answer 42

Inhibition

Question 43

are chemical messengers that carry, boost, and balance signals between neurons

Answer 43

Neurotransmitters

Question 44

Small-molecule transmitters, like ___ and _____, typically act directly on neighboring cells.

Answer 44

dopamine; glutamate

Question 45

The _____, small molecules like ___ and ___, work more subtly, modulating, or adjusting, how cells communicate at the synapse

Answer 45

neuropeptides; insulin, oxytocin

Question 46

Criteria Neurotransmitter (4)

Answer 46

-Presence of the chemical within cell
-Stimulus-dependent release
-Action on the postsynaptic cell
-mechanism for removal

Question 47

The chemical must be released by the ___, and the ____ must contain receptors that the chemical will bind to

Answer 47

presynaptic neuron; postsynaptic neuron

Question 48

Classification of Neurotransmitter (3)

Answer 48

-Excitatory Neurotransmitters
-Inhibitory Neurotransmitters
-Modulatory Neurotransmitters

Question 49

These types of neurotransmitters increase the likelihood that the neuron will fire an action potential.

Answer 49

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Question 50

major excitatory neurotransmitters include ___ and ___

Answer 50

epinephrine; norepinephrine

Question 51

These types of neurotransmitters decrease the likelihood that the neuron will fire an action potential

Answer 51

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Question 52

major inhibitory neurotransmitters include ___ and ___

Answer 52

serotonin; gammaaminobutyric acid (GABA)

Question 53

these types of neurotransmitters are capable of affecting a larger number of neurons at the same time

Answer 53

Modulatory Neurotransmitters/ neuromodulators

Question 54

these types of neurotransmitters influence the effects of other chemical messengers

Answer 54

Modulatory Neurotransmitters

Question 55

These types of neurotransmitters diffuse across a larger area and are more slow-acting.

Answer 55

Modulatory Neurotransmitters/ Neuromodulators

Question 56

Neurotransmitters that act as neuromodulators include (5)

Answer 56

acetylcholine, dopamine, serotonin, histamine,cannabinoids

Question 57

Categories of Neurotransmitter (6)

Answer 57

-Amino Acids
-Peptides
-Monoamines
-Purines
-Gasotransmitter
-Acetylcholine

Question 58

Categories of neurotransmitters: amino acids (2)

Answer 58

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
Glutamate

Question 59

This naturally occurring amino acid acts as the body’s main inhibitory chemical messenger.

Answer 59

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

Question 60

contributes to vision and motor control, also playing a role in the regulation of anxiety.

Answer 60

GABA

Question 61

are used to help treat anxiety, function by increasing the efficiency of GABA neurotransmitters, which can increase feelings of relaxation and calm.

Answer 61

Benzodiazepines

Question 62

The most plentiful neurotransmitter found in the nervous system; plays a role in cognitive functions such as memory and learning.

Answer 62

Glutamate

Question 63

Excessive amounts of glutamate can cause ___ resulting in cellular death.

Answer 63

excitotoxicity

Question 64

This excitotoxicity caused by glutamate build-up is associated with some diseases and brain injuries including ___ , ___, and ___

Answer 64

Alzheimer’s disease, stroke, epileptic seizures

Question 65

Categories of neurotransmitters: Peptides (2)

Answer 65

Oxytocin
Endorphins

Question 66

This powerful hormone acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain.

Answer 66

Oxytocin

Question 67

It is produced by the hypothalamus and plays a role in social recognition, bonding, and sexual reproduction

Answer 67

Oxytocin

Question 68

Synthetic oxytocin such as ___ is often used as an aid in labor and delivery.

Answer 68

Pitocin

Question 69

Both ___ cause the uterus to contract during labor

Answer 69

oxytocin and Pitocin

Question 70

These neurotransmitters inhibit the transmission of pain signals and promote feelings of euphoria.

Answer 70

Endorphins

Question 71

These chemical messengers are produced naturally by the body in response to pain, but they can also be triggered by other activities such as aerobic exercise.

Answer 71

Endorphins

Question 72

Categories of neurotransmitters: Monoamines (5)

Answer 72

-Epinephrine
-Norepinephrine
-Histamine
-Dopamine
-Serotonin

Question 73

Also known as adrenaline, it is considered both a hormone and a neurotransmitter.

Answer 73

Epinephrine

Question 74

Generally, ____ is a stress hormone that is released by the adrenal system; However, it functions as a neurotransmitter in the brain.

Answer 74

epinephrine

Question 75

This naturally occurring chemical is a neurotransmitter that plays an important role in alertness and is involved in the body’s fight-or-flight response.

Answer 75

Norepinephrine

Question 76

Its role is to help mobilize the body and brain to take action in times of danger or stress

Answer 76

Norepinephrine

Question 77

Levels of this neurotransmitter are typically lowest during sleep and highest during times of stress.

Answer 77

Norepinephrine

Question 78

This organic compound acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain and spinal.

Answer 78

Histamine

Question 79

It plays a role in allergic reactions and is produced as part of the immune system’s response to pathogens.

Answer 79

Histamine

Question 80

Commonly known as the feel-good neurotransmitter; involved in reward, motivation, and additions.

Answer 80

Dopamine

Question 81

This chemical messenger also plays an important role in the coordination of body movements.

Answer 81

Dopamine

Question 82

is a degenerative disease that results in tremors and motor movement impairments, is caused by the loss of dopamine-generating neurons in the brain.

Answer 82

Parkinson’s disease

Question 83

A hormone and neurotransmitter, ____ plays an important role in regulating and modulating mood, sleep, anxiety, sexuality, and appetite

Answer 83

serotonin

Question 84

are a type of antidepressant medication commonly prescribed to treat depression, anxiety, panic disorder, and panic attacks.

Answer 84

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

Question 85

__ work to balance serotonin levels by blocking the reuptake of serotonin in the brain, which can help improve mood and reduce feelings of anxiety.

Answer 85

SSRIs

Question 86

Categories of neurotransmitters: Purines (2)

Answer 86

Adenosine
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

Question 87

This naturally occurring chemical acts as a neuromodulator in the brain and is involved in suppressing arousing and improving sleep.

Answer 87

Adenosine

Question 88

Considered to be the energy currency of life, ___ acts as a neurotransmitter in the central and peripheral nervous systems

Answer 88

ATP

Question 89

plays a role in autonomic control, sensory transduction, and communication with glial cells.

Answer 89

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

Question 90

Research suggests it may also have a part in some neurological problems including pain, trauma, and neurodegenerative disorders.

Answer 90

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

Question 91

Categories of neurotransmitters: Gasotransmitter (2)

Answer 91

Nitric oxide
Carbon monoxide

Question 92

This compound plays a role in affecting smooth muscles, relaxing them to allow blood vessels to dilate and increase blood flow to certain areas of the body.

Answer 92

Nitric oxide

Question 93

This colorless, odorless gas can have toxic and potentially fatal effects when people are exposed to high levels of the substance

Answer 93

Carbon monoxide

Question 94

it is also produced naturally by the body where it acts as a neurotransmitter that helps modulate the body’s inflammatory response

Answer 94

Carbon monoxide

Question 95

This is the only neurotransmitter in its class. Found in both the central and peripheral nervous systems, it is the primary neurotransmitter associated with motor neurons.

Answer 95

Acetylcholine

Question 96

It plays a role in muscle movements as well as memory and learning

Answer 96

Acetylcholine