M's foreign policy Flashcards
Why was M still angry at Britain and France despite the fact that he maintained a reasonably good relationship with them?
Because he was still mindful of the mutilated victory
What did he want to do to Italy’s international status?
At least the level of Britain and France
Why did M think that Italy was in line to replace Britain and France in terms of international dominance?
He thought that these countries were decadent and that the future lay with more virile nations such as fascist Italy
Why do some historians see the aggresive, adventurous foreign policy as a distraction?
They think that M thought that it would distract from economic issues and domestic policy failures at home
How had Italy had its international reputation damaged following WWI?
Due to its failures
Give an example of one of these failures
Caporetto (1917)
How did Italy redeem herself following Caporetto?
At the Battle of Vittorio Veneto in 1918
How did the British and French view their Italian allies during WWI?
As a liability
Give a quote from M where he talks about how war can be a force for improving ones character
He said it brings the stamp of nobility upon those who have the courage to wage it
How did Italians still feel towards the post war treaties?
Bitter
What did M know would happen if he could bring about a revision of these treaties?
It would increase his prestige both domestically and abroad
The status of which two places in particular needed to be settled in Italy’s favour?
Fiume and the Dodecanese Islands
What did M consider the Med to be?
Mare Nostrum, meaning ‘our sea’
What was M determined to do within the Med?
Achieve Italian dominance
Why would this be difficult?
Because both France and Britain had interests there
Explain France’s influence in the Med
France controlled the island of Corsica and the North African Coastline stretching across Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco
What two strategic points of entry into the Med did Britain control?
The Suez Canal and Gibraltar
Why would M need to proceed carefully in the Med?
Because both Britain and France were among the world’s greatest naval powers
The prospect of annexing which country was still tempting to M?
Albania - a country that was formerly party of the Ottoman Empire and that was still Islamic by religion and culture
Describe the geopolitical status of Albania from 1921
After a lengthy dispute between Italy, Greece and Yugoslavia, a regency council was appointed to rule over the country. Albania became a republic under the leadership of King Zog in 1925. The country was already economically dependent on Italy with its bank in Rome
Why was M keen to gain control of Albania?
So that he could use it as a stepping stone to extend Italian influence in the Balkans
Who was his main adversary in the region?
Greece
What did Britain and France both possess that M was especially jealous of?
Great colonial empires
What did he do as a result?
Sought to create an Italian overseas empire by conquest
What territories in Africa did Italy already possess?
Libya, Eritrea and Somaliland - but these in no way matched that of the other two powers
What was the main opportunity for extension in Africa still left?
Abyssinia, where Italy had already been embarrassed in 1896
Why did M’s foreign policy successes reflect on himself and his regime?
Whatever successes he had here would reflect on the quality of his leadership and serve as example of the achievements of fascism, which would help popularise fascism abroad
When was a rival fascist regime set up in Europe?
1933
Why was M concerned about Hitler’s territorial ambitions?
Because they may have had an impact on Italy
Why would increasing the size of the army and equipping them with modern weapons prove difficult
Because this would prove expensive and a further drain on their already limited resources
Why had the success of the battle for grain not been in enough in terms of achieving autarky?
Because Italy remained woefully short and far from self sufficient in the production of war materials like oil, steel and explosives
Why was Italy limited in terms of manpower?
Because the Battle for Births was in its earlier stages and was bound for failure
Why was M’s aim that Italy become amongst the major powers and an influential voice in international affairs unrealistic?
Because it did not have the economic or military means to achieve this
Why was Italy free to follow her foreign policy ambitions during the 1920s?
Because there was no immediate threat from other powers
How did M act as a peacemaker in 1923?
When Britain was opposed to French occupation of the Ruhr, M tried to act as a mediator between the two countries
How did this earn the distrust of both Britain and France?
Because they both realised that M was trying to play them off against one another
What would Italy need the support or in order to pursue this ambitious foreign policy?
reliable allies
What did M do in pursuit of this?
Launched himself into alliances, signing treaties with many European countries
Which countries did he form alliances with in 1923?
- Poland
- Czechoslovakia
- Austria
Which countries did he form alliances with in 1924?
- USSR
- Switzerland
Which countries did he form alliances with in 1925?
- Hungary
- Spain
- Albania
- Greece
Why were these treaties and alliances not that important?
They were largely commercial and of little political importance since M’s was prepared to quickly prepared to swap allegiances if it was in Italy’s interest
What did British Ambassador in Rome Sir Ronald Graham say to illustrate how fickle M was in terms of foreign policy?
That M was always prepared to ‘offer Italian friendship to the highest bidder’
Why did M’s ambitions for Italy to become a major player in international affairs not matter?
Because he failed to achieve this
How was M’s aggresive foreign policy received at home?
It was widely supported
Give some example of groups that supported M’s foreign policy?
- War veterans
- Those who had enthused over D’Annunzio’s capture of Fiume
- Nationalists
- Former members of the squadristi looking for further opportunities to engage in violence and conquest
What does Martin Blinkhorn say about the combination of these groups
That the resultant cocktail was a dangerous and intoxicating one, especially when composed by someone as vain and violent as M
Why did M have to tread carefully in terms of his foreign policy?
He had to appear to be a respectable statesman so he could achieve his aims through diplomacy
Why can M be seen as unprepared to deal with foreign policy upon coming to power?
Because he did not have any clear foreign policy
How had M’s ideas around foreign policy changed since his youth?
It was clear that he had renounced his old anti-war and anti-imperialist ideas, but it was not clear what views he had developed to replace these ideas
What was his attitude towards WWI?
He loudly supported intervention
What was his attitude towards the WWI peace settlement?
He condemned it and coined the term ‘mutilated victory’ but it was unclear what revisions to the peace treaties he would seek
What general foreign policy aim did he develop in his first few months in office?
In his words ‘to make Italy great, respected and feared’
What did he think Italy needed to do to achieve this great power status?
Via miltary build up, diplomatic intrigue and, if necessary, war samosa
What was M’s ambition for Italian international power?
That Italy would one day be the dominant power in the med, would develop and expand its colonial empire in Africa and would have the balkans as its own sphere of influence, with M as the architect of all this
What did he hope this process would transform Italians into?
A more energetic and aggresive people
What was the problem with M’s foreign policy plans during the 1920s?
They lacked detail
Explain how they lacked detail?
He was not sure which colonies he would expand, he was not sure how he would achieve this dominance in the med or how much power he desired in the Balkans
Where can we see consistency with M’s foreign policy over time?
Because his objectives remained the same, even if the situation forced him to adopt to a variety of tactics to achieve these objectives
Describe how M wanted to act unilaterally in terms of foreign policy
He wanted to conduct it himself, circumventing the foreign office, reaping international prestige and internal support. Foreign policy would come to take up more and more of his time as the years went on
Why was M wrong to convince himself that he was ushering in a new era of foreign policy?
The desire for great power status, high military expenditure and colonial adventures had been a liberal ambition too
How did M exceed the liberals in trying to achieve this ambition?
He pursued these goals more relentlessly and recklessly, particularly in the 1930s
Why was this so negative for M?
Because he squandered vast sums on colonial projects and led Italy into a disastrous war, which resulted in the collapse of fascism, civil war and the death of M himself
What did M think was necessary to create a nation?
Bloodshed
What was the language and rhetoric of fascism all about?
Struggle and the virtues of war and the warrior
Why did M see violence as more than just a necessary evil?
It was a creative force unlocking rebirth. It was to be welcomed and embraced
What did M say in support of war in ‘Doctrine of Fascism’ (1932)?
He said that it was the ‘true test of manhood and nationhood’
What did M say to a group of senior naval officers in 1926 in support of the idea that Italy needed to take control of the med?
A nation that has no access to the sea cannot be called a free nation, a nation that has no access to the oceans cannot be called a great power, Italy must become a great power
What does RJB Bosworth say about M’s unilateral approach to foreign policy in ‘Mussolini’ (2002)
That from the beginning of his career M had directed his ambition to be considered a ‘great man’ by advertising his expertise in international affairs. For most of his regime he had direct control over the ministry of foreign affairs. He also had control of the ministries associated with the armed forces
What title does Bosworth say M took up in the 1930s that reflects his focus on foreign policy?
‘First Marshal of the Empire’
What does McGregor Knox say about the motivations behind M’s foreign policy in ‘Hitler’s Italian allies’ (2000)?
That like Hitler, M saw himself as a man of destiny whose job it was to make Italy a great power internationally
How did the merger between the PNF and the nationalists in 1923 impact foreign policy?
It involved the acquisition of alot of the nationalist parties aims. Part of the merger agreement involved M adopting a more aggresive foreign policy, supported by a strong armed forces
How did M’s radical approach to foreign policy build up over time?
When he came to power, his attitude to foreign policy was not grandiose or aggresive. He announced that he did not want an ideological foreign policy and that he was more concerned with protecting Italy’s interests than being adventurous. The idea of the mutilated victory and majorly extending Italian influence became a theme only gradually
What does DMS suggest motivated M’s foreign policy?
M wanting to create a modern Roman Empire by extending Italy’s colonial territories in East Africa
Why was it natural that M turned his attention to Abyssinia?
It was next to the Italian colonies already in existing and there had been a long standing dispute over where the border lay between the two. M believed that it was within Italy’s sphere of influence and wanted to avenge the humiliation in 1896
Why did M also want to acquire Sudan?
So he could unite all his African territories into one geographical unit
Which nation did Italy come into conflict with due to M’s desire to take back control of the med?
Britain
Why was the navy one of M’s greatest successes?
He managed to expand and modernise it
How did this improved navy allow Italy to frustrate Britain?
They captured Malta, a British naval base, which destabilised British influence in Egypt. The invasions of Greece and Egypt in the 1940s were also part of this strategy
What did M naively ask Hitler to do to support his ambitions in the med?
To abandon his ambitions with the USSR to help Italy in the med
What does RJB Bosworth say about how Italy’s foreign policy was perhaps outdated?
He says that Italy behaved as if it was a 19th century power, replicating the grab for Africa indulged by the great powers at this time
Why did Italy no longer have powerful enemies in the north come 1922?
Due to its friendship with France and the dismemberment of the Austro-Hungarian Empire
Why did Italy have to make sure to stay on the right side of Britain and France?
Because any change to the status quo in Europe had to have their consent
How did the Italian economy compare to that of Britain, France and the USA?
It was tiny by comparison, still essentially a rural and peasant society. Italy lacked the industrial muscle to be a great power
Give a statistic to illustrate how Italy had failed to become economically self sufficient by the time they entered WWII
The US Ford Motor Company produced more armaments that the entirety of Italy
How was Italy penned in by Britain and France?
Britain had surrounding naval bases in Malta, Cyprus, Gib and Alexandria. France held Corsica and Tunisia, both of which Italy wanted
What was the only way Italy could really challenge this French and British dominance?
By splitting them or finding a powerful ally against one or both of them
What was the only country that fitted this mould?
Eventually Germany, although they were initially too weak following WWI
How did the army and King at home constrain M’s ability to engage in reckless foreign policy?
Because they were opposed to risky endeavours, and at this point M lacked his grasp on the Italian public to overrule these two institutions. The KIng could dismiss him, and the blackshirts could not stand up to the army
What happened to an Italian general and his team while they were out mapping the Albanian-Greek border?
They were shot by Greek assassins
Describe M’s over the top response
Italy seized the Greek island of Corfu after shelling it and killing several civilians. This resulted in a major international crisis which had to be resolved by an ambassadors conference brokered by Britain, as M refused to negotiate with the League of Nations. Italy eventually withdrew from Corfu after receiving compensation of 50 million lire
What does this episode show about Italy’s power?
That while they may have been able to bully smaller powers, they could not stand up to the great powers
What did this episode make M realise about Britain?
The importance of maintaining good relations with Britain
Why would it be relatively easy to maintain good relations with Britain at this time?
Because Austen Chamberlain, Britain’s foreign secretary for much of the 1920s, was an admirer of Italian Fascism
How did the incident enhance M’s image?
It was a propaganda victory at an important time
Since what year had Albania been independent of Turkey?
1912
What did the League of Nations do regarding Albania in 1921?
Enstrusted Italy with the guardianship of the country’s independence
Which country did Albania have border disputes with?
Greece
What does DMS say about the incident was useful for propaganda purposes?
That this first instance of violence on an international stage won him a reputation for courage and patriotism
Describe the civilian casualties caused by the shelling
Some shells landed on an orphanage and refugee camp
Describe the divide in international opinion following M’s seizure of Corfu
Many foreign powers were critical of M’s ‘gunboat diplomacy’, seeing it as impulsive and ill advised. There was support for Italy in the French and British press. The Observer applauded M’s virile direction of his country’s affairs
How did M justify his actions to British reporters?
By saying that Britain would have done the same if it had been British officers that had been killed
Why was the fact that this was the first major crisis M had faced put him under lots of pressure?
Because if he failed to get his way, it would reflect badly on the regime and public opinion might turn against him. This might lead to political instability and the return of communism
What did a British diplomat say in support of this idea?
‘The whole fascist fabric might collapse like a pack of cards’
Why were M’ foreign policy aims not as grand and far reaching as they first seemed?
Most of them were not totally new
Why was his ability to shape foreign policy limited upon becoming PM?
Because he was reliant on the foreign office he inherited
Why was this not an issue?
They shared his belief in Italy’s right to gain territory and spheres on influence in the Eastern Med and Africa. M’s style might be different, but the substance would be along familiar lines
What happened as M became less restrained?
He developed a more assertive foreign policy
What was did he think about the future of world politics?
He thought that the future lay with young virile nations like Italy and Germany rather than the old decadent ones like Britain and France
What did he do from the 1930s?
Took advantage of what he saw as good opportunities to finally establish Italy as a major power
List the 7 main influence on foreign policy
- Italy’s goegraphical position
- Foreign policy traditions
- Fascist ideology
- Financial links to the USA
- Limited economic resources
- The Versailles settlement
- The international context (the power and policies of other nations)
What did Sir Ronald Graham, British ambassador in Rome, report back in Jan 1923?
Said that M’s position was troubled and so striking a foreign policy success was important to him, especially as he is having trouble with some of his own followers. His foreign policy was be opportunistic and Italian friendship will be on offer to the highest bidder. His impression was that they would prefer to work with GB, but at a price
What did he report back in June 1923?
Reminded the gov that Italian foreign policy was based upon principles different to their own. Frankly opportunistic and egotistic. M has proclaimed and emphasised that his FP will be in the sole interests of Italy and one of ‘nothing for nothing’
How did the global power dynamic shift from the 1920s to the 1930s?
- In ther 1920s Germany was potentially powerful but was hemmed in by the ToV. The USSR had been involved in civil war and was trying to recover. This left Britain and France unchallenged
- By the 1930s Britain was weaker because it was overstetched and France was politically weak, with unstable govs and political divisions. Germany had been rearming and was led by a determined nationalist who aimed to reassert German might. Italian rhetoric showed that it was a great power but reality proved otherwise. Britain and France were becoming more concerned about the growing might of the USSR, and of the threat to their empires in the East from militaristic Japan
Explain Italy’s ‘makeweight policy’
Italy was trying to establish itself as a great power. Limited economic and military resources made this difficult. Many statesmen therefore realised the best way to make territorial gains was to exploit the rivalry of major powers and offer their alliances. Italy could offer to join one side in return for concessions. This required a rough balance between rival blocks in which Italy’s intervention could be a determining factor. This policy was classically favoured by Grandi, M’s most able diplomat
What is often regarded as the key turning point of his foreign policy?
The 1935 Abyssinian campaign
How can foreign policy events between 1922-35 be seen?
Most of the events can be seen as relatively minor affairs, which were spun as great successes by propaganda. They helped consolidate M’s position and create an image, more, myth than reality, of Italy as a rising power
Describe how M forced compensation payments from Greece in 1923 over Corfu
Italian official killed while trying to resolve a Greek-Albanian border dispute. M demanded that Greece apologise and pay 50 million lire. Italy invaded Greek Corfu despite the fact that Greece was conciliatory. The League of Nations condemned Italy and demanded withdrawal. Britain threatened naval action and M withdrew after receiving the 50 million lire. Italian propaganda spun it as a great success
Explain how M gained Fiume in 1924
Sent an Italian military commander to rule there. Yugoslavia agreed to give it to Italy in Jan 1924. Portrayed as a great propaganda success despite the fact that the port was declining in economic importance as Yugoslavia developed a rival port, Split
Explain how M guaranteed Germany’s western border with the 1925 Locarno Pact
M was persuaded to join the meeting and guarantee the Locarno Pacts where Germany, France and Belgium accepted their borders. M’s attempt to get Italy’s Brenner border with Austria included failed
Describe how Albania became an Italian protectorate in 1926
Further extended Italian influence
Describe the 1933 Four Powers Pact
Leaders of Germany, Italy, France and Britain met in Rome. M wanted to build a rival to the League of Nations to sort out European affairs. Four power cooperations and spheres of influence, with agreed revisions, were discussed. This was displayed by the press as displaying Italy as the centre of European diplomacy, but nothing concrete came out of the meeting
Describe how M warned H to stay out of Austria in 1934
Austrian Nazis wanted union with Germany (Anschluss) and so assasinated Austrian Chancellor Dolfuss. M mobilised his troops on Italy’s Austrian border and claimed that this deterred to Anschluss. H was probably not intending to take Austria then anyway
How was M offered a free hand in Africa in return for support against the growing menace of Hitler in 1935?
Britain, Italy and France protested against Germany rearmament, which violated the ToV. They agreed to prevent any future changes in Europe. M believed that he had French and British consent for invasion of Abyssinia in return
How can foreign policy during 1935-9 be seen?
Italy was at war virtually all the time. This ironically contributed to M’s decision not to join Hitler in the war in 1939
Describe how M conquered Abyssinia between Oct 1935-Apr 1936
M sent troops after a border clash with Abyssinia. LoN imposed some sanctions. This led to a growth of nationalist support for the war in Italy. Britain and France failed to arrange a compromise. Italy defeated Abyssinia in May 1936. Victor Emmanuel was crowned emporor of Abyssinia
Describe how M intervened in the Spanish Civil War in July 1936
Sent planes and troops to help nationalist General Franco to revolt against Spain’s socialist gov. Expected a short war but it lasted three years. Italian troops defeated at Guadalajara but Franco eventually won
Describe the 1936 Berlin Axis
Vague alliance with no formal commitment
Describe how Italy joined Germany and Japan in the Nov 1937 Anti-Comintern Pact
Directed against the USSR
Describe how M accepted H’s invasion of Austria in 1938
H gave M 12 hours notice. M accepted Anschluss. This was unpopular in Italy
Describe how M was hailed as a peacemaker in Sep 1938 Munich
M took a high profile at the conference giving the Czech Sudetenland to Germany and avoided the threat of European War. This did little in practise
Describe how M invaded Albania in Mar 1939
Imitation of Hitler’s seizure of Czechoslovakia, which he already virtually controlled. King Zod fled, and there was little resistance
Describe the May 1939 Pact of Steel
M proposed a pact with Germany. Agreed to cooperate fully in the event of a war. Italy said it would not be ready to fight until 1943, but this was not written into the agreement
Describe how Italy declared herself non-belligerent in Sep 1939
M accepted Italy was not ready for war and stayed out of WWII
How had the Libyan War helped M gain power?
It helped him rise to prominence in the PSI due to his emotive opposition
How would war then cause him to split the party?
Because he supported WWI
How did WWI help him gain power?
He fought in WWI and founded the fascist movement with rebellious ex-combattants. He exploited the fears, expectations and turmoil caused by WWI to gain power
What happened to A in 1924?
It was admitted to the LoN after being proposed by Italy. They were opposed by Britain who saw them as too uncivilised
In 1930
The coronation of Ras Tafari as King of Kings
What did Italy do in 1932?
Drew up an invasion plan
What happened in Dec 1934?
Italian and A forces clash at the dispute d Wal Wal Oasis
Feb 1935
Italy begins to dispatch extra troops to Italian East Africa
Apr 1935
Stresa Front appears to give M to go ahead to invade
Sep 1935
LoN reports the Wal Wal crisis as neither sides fault as both sides considered the oasis to be in their territory
3 Oct 1935
I launched its invasion
