Why was M appointed PM in 1922

Question 1

How was M influenced by his place of birth

Answer 1

Born in Predappio, Romagna, a region of marked class conflict and strong anarchist and republican political traditions

Question 2

How was M influenced by his father

Answer 2

He absorbed revolutionary ideas from his father. ‘Socialism is an open and violent rebellion against our inhuman state of things’

Question 3

What doid M always stress about how his background had influenced him

Answer 3

‘I am a man of the people. I understand the people because I am one of them’

Question 4

Angelica Balbanoff, a marxist socialist who had a strong influence on M, gained this insight into his character

Answer 4

As soon as I saw that he knew little of history, economics and marxist theory and that his mind was completely undisciplined, I saw that his radicalism and anti clericalism were more the reflection of his early environment and his own rebellious egoism than the product of understanding and conviction; his hatred of oppression was not an impersonal hatred of a system shared by all revolutionaries; it sprang rather from his own sense of indignity and frustration, from a passion to assert his own ego and from a determination for personal revenge

Question 5

What was M’s position in Italian politics heading into 1914

Answer 5

He was firmly established in the revolutionary wing of the socialist party. His journalism was aggressive; he supported violence and a revolutionary socialist takeover

Question 6

How did the PSI react to the outbreak of war

Answer 6

They saw the war as an imperialist struggle fought at the expense of the working classes in Europe. Unlike most other socialist parties, the PSI stuck to its principles ad opposed Italy’s entry into the war

Question 7

Why did M disagree

Answer 7

He was impatient about being sidelined from an event which might destroy existing political structures, provide exciting revolutionary options and give opportunities for personal glory

Question 8

What did he write just a year earlier in 1913 that shows how quickly he could change his mind

Answer 8

Let us have no more talk of battleships, barracks, cannon at a time when thousands of villages have no schools, roads, electricity or doctors, but still live tragically beyond the pale of civilised life

Question 9

Give two excerpts from Avanti which show how quickly he was prone to change his mind

Answer 9

In July 1914: Down with war! Down with arms and up with humanity

Oct 1914: To offer the same kind of opposition to all wars is stupidity bordering on the imbecile. Do you want to be a spectator of this great drama or do you want to be its fighters?

Question 10

What did he write in May 1915 that shows that he may have supported war in the hopes that it would be a vehicle for national unity

Answer 10

From today we are all Italians, nothing but Italians

Question 11

Why was he expelled from the socialist party

Answer 11

For promoting intervention

Question 12

How did he respond to this

Answer 12

He set up his own newspaper in Nov 1914, partly financed by the French govt and Italian industrialists. The paper was known as Il Popolo d’Italia and claimed to still be supporter of socialist ideas, but advocated entry into the war

Question 13

How would the newspaper change view following M’s brief time fighting

Answer 13

After Caporetto, he claimed Italy needed a strong commander to take control of the war effort. Instead of calling the paper a socialist daily, it became ‘the paper of combatants and producers’. No longer would the emphasis be on class; M would welcome anyone prepared to fight and work to save the nation

Question 14

Explain how fascism developed from a left wing to a right wing movement between 1919-22

Answer 14

• March 1919 saw the creation of the fascio di combattimento, mainly formed of ex soldiers. Said they would provide new leadership in a national revolution. Movement rather than a party. Sought the support of all patriotic Italians. Their programme expressed radical social ideas, stemming from their experience of war. Provided a nationalist socialist alternative to the PSI, who were seen as traitors

The movement attracted a mixed collection of people dissatisfied with the status quo. The movements main mouthpiece was Il Popolo d’Italia. In April 1919 they burned down the Avanti offices and engaged in other acts of violence against the hated socialists. Failed miserably in the 1919 elections after standing on a radical programme. M gained only 2% of the Milan vote and the radical vote went to the PSI

By 1920 the indstrial and rural elite were worried by the rise of socialism and govt inaction. Some saw the fascists as the best antidote to socialism and started to give funds to the fascist squads to fight the socialists

M wanted change and power and saw opportunity. He could achieve this by appealing to those frightened by the socialists. This meant playing down his left wing ideas and shifting his programme to have greater right wing appeal

In late 1920 fascism took off, especially in rural areas in northern and central Italy. Ras set up their own squads. They attracted not only the agrarian elite, but also many small landholders armed by socialist local govt and worried about a socialist revolution. Fascist anti socialism made fascism a mass movement

Some original fascist were concerned about how the bourgeoisie were joining the movement and M’s shift to the right. Many dropped out of the movement. Several ras protested against M as they were not yet under his control. However as the movement grew they realised how important M and his paper were for unity and strength

Giolitti hoped that he could absorb the movement that was becoming a major force in the country. He gambled by forming an electoral alliance with the fascists in 1921. They gained 35 seats and M joined parliament. Giolitti hoped to tame them by offering M a govt role but M refused to become a junior partner

Tension emerged between fascist wanting to seize power legally and those who wanted to revolution. M was concerned about the threat of fascist violence undermining his position as a respectable MP and his control of the movement. In AUg 1921 he signed a pact of pacification with the socialists. Ras pressure forced him to back down. In Nov 1921 he formed the PNF which recognised the role of the squads but accepted M as the indispensible duce. Its new programme was right wing. M was looking for more power, which meant becoming more respectable

By 1922 the fascists had broken socialist power in many northern and central areas. They were often assisted by the authorities, who were keen to see the socialists smashed. M was under pressure from some of the ras to seize power, and he realised that if fascism did not gain power soon the movement might collapse. He hoped to use ras pressure on govt to be appointed PM legally. In Sep 1922 he announced his support for the monarchy

The fascists planned seizure of local govts and a march on rome to seize power. Many in the elite were arguing the the fascists should join the govt. M would only accept becoming PM

Question 15

What did M say upon announcing war with socialism

Answer 15

‘We declare war on socialism not because it is socialism but because it is opposed to nationalism’

Question 16

Why was M not really in a position to set out a detailed political programme in 1919

Answer 16

Because he could not do this without alienating current or potential supporters, given the fact the group was such an eclectic mix

Question 17

Give a statistic to show how fascism remained small in 1919

Answer 17

Had little over 1000 members

Question 18

What can explain this lack of early success

Answer 18

Fascism was still viewed as a left wing movement and left wing support went to the PSI

Question 19

Give a statistic to prove this was the case

Answer 19

In the 1919 GE fascists gained only 5000 votes compared to 168,000 for the PSI

Question 20

Why did it not matter that the fascist shift to the right lost some support

Answer 20

These losses were replaced by young, lower middle class recruits from the universities, the civil service and the respectable bourgeois families

Question 21

Why do historians now play down the importance of M in the growth of fascism

Answer 21

The movement grew with the development of locally formed fasci led by ras, some of whom had very different ideas to M. Historians increasinly stress the importance of developments in local fascism at this time. Where M was important was in providing a nationally recognised leader. However, it was going to be several years until he could fully control fascism

Question 22

From what social class could the key group of active supporters be found

Answer 22

This group contained a wide range of people in both the working class and middle class. They felt a collective sense of insecurity and were prone to turn to radical groups. Many were ex soldiers proud of the military victory they had won, but felt humiliated by not receiving what they considered to be owed by the govt. They thought themselves entitled to major rewards for their services but received none

Question 23

How did fascism become a mass movement by attracting agricultural support

Answer 23

They won a rural lower middle class base among small farmers in parts of Romagna, Lombardy and Venetia. Some of these farmers had recently improved their position and expanded their landholdings. They believed that rural socialism threatened these gains. The agrari were also prepared to finance any movement willing to combat socialism

Question 24

Why did fascism gain the support of industrialists

Answer 24

They were frightened by socialism and were concerned that the liberals were making too many concessions to workers

Question 25

Why did students and youths support the movement

Answer 25

They were eager for adventure and action and embittered about the rising wages of unpatriotic workers and their own lack of prospects. They detested the boring routine of their daily lives and many joined the squads

Question 26

How did the movement even attract support from some socialists

Answer 26

As they smashed socialist and catholic unions, workers found they had to join fascist syndicates for employment. Several of the fascists of the first hour were syndicalists who believed that workers should be organised into unions to protect their members and contribute to the industrial growth of Italy. Some workers also resented the string arm methods against blacklegs which socialist unions used, and were therefore attracted to a rival organisation

The fascist also attracted working class support by retaining some aspects of their original social radicalism. They could still talk of giving land to the peasants and fair wages and prices. Employers tolerated such talk as long as it served to weaken socialism, and very little came of it anyway

Question 27

What did M say in 1922 about the importance of rural fascism

Answer 27

The sharecropper or leaseholder tries with all his strength to become and owner. The peasants are conquering the land by their own strength. It is therefore clear that the new class of small owners cannot help but detest socialism. From fascism they everything to hope for and nothing to fear. During the risorgimento the rurali (agricultural population) were either absent or hostile. The great war recruited them in their millions. However, their participation in events was on the whole passive. Now fascism has transformed this rural passivity into active support for the sanctity of the nation

Question 28

Why kind of sentiments did fascism commit itself to as M purged the radical elements of the movement

Answer 28

Restoring Italian power and prestige

Develop the economy by increasing productivity

Abolish harmful state controls

Re-establish strong leadership and law and order by cracking down on left wing subversives

Question 29

How did de-redicalisation continue in 1922

Answer 29

Abandonment of republicanism

End of anti clericalism

Dropped demands for votes for women and taxes on war profits

Increasingly the emphasis was placed on nationalism, a strong state and an active foreign policy

Question 30

How did M feel about party political programmes

Answer 30

He never spoke favourably of them. He claimed that Italy had had enough of politics and programmes and wanted action instead. Furthermore, it would be difficult to unite his diverse collection of supporters around a detailed political programme. His temperament aligned more with a desire for action than being tied to a party manifesto

Question 31

What does DMS say about the unprincipled nature of fascism

Answer 31

Had elements of left and right. Revolutionary and conservative, monarchist but also republican, catholic but also anti clerical, claimed to be socialist but could also be strongly capitalist

Fascism was not a doctrine, not ideas, not ideology, it was really a means to an end for one single man to achieve power

Question 32

How many opponents are estimated to have been killed by the fascists between 1920-22

Answer 32

2000

Question 33

Why can it be said that Bonomi did not do enough to prevent the rise of fascism in upon becoming PM in Dec 1921

Answer 33

He merely authorised rather than instructed local prefects to take firm action against paramilitary groups, and most prefects avoided such a potentially dangerous course of action

Question 34

What does Cassels say about how the establishment was unwilling to oppose fascist violence

Answer 34

By 1922 there was hardly any segment of the Italian establishment that was not willing to collaborate with fascism for either nationalist and anti bolshevik reasons

Question 35

Make the case that fascism was a strong contender to take power by 1922

Answer 35

Half a million PNF members

250,000 blackshirts

Virtually controlled several regions

Offered firm leadership, an end to class conflict and a return to national greatness at a time when many Italians were disillusioned

Their violence had helped smash socialism and they had therefore attracted the support of groups intimidated by socialism

They had an aura of power far beyond their numbers

Question 36

How had the opponents of fascism aided its growth

Answer 36

Weak and divided

Liberal govts offered no leadership in the face of serious economic and political problems

Recent historians have put great success on the collapse at the centre an especially the provinces between 1920-22

Liberal socialist and catholic opponents to fascism were unable to cooperate

Question 37

What did the govt have to choose between in Autumn 1922

Answer 37

They had to either take a firm stand against fascist violence or try and tame it by incorporating the moderate fascists into govt

Question 38

Give an example of how opponents fascism could not cooperate to combat it

Answer 38

In July 1922 when the moderates in the PPI and the PSI agreed to join the liberals in an anti fascist coalition, Giolitti withheld support and the plan collapsed. Liberal politicians were still putting personal feuds above the need for united action

Question 39

Why was socialism still an important factor in the fascist coming to power despite the fact that it was on the wane

Answer 39

There power had peaked in Sep 1920 with the factory occupations. Diminished power of socialism was actually a problem for fascism as it would have made them unnecessary. However, similar to with the mutilated victory, what matters was what people believed, and they still feared socialism