LECTURE 1

Question 1

Psychology

Answer 1

The scientific study of thinking, emotions and behavior. Spans many levels of analysis (from physiological to cultural influences). Cannot truly understand psychology by focusing on one level of analysis

Question 2

Mind and behavior are determined by multiple levels of influence

Answer 2

Physiological/Mental (thoughts and emotions)/Behavioral/Interpersonal/Societal/Cultural

Question 3

Show how these levels of influence affect depression

Answer 3

(Refer to the book)

Question 4

Types of influences are interrelated.

Answer 4

Reciprocal determinism

Question 5

Example of reciprocal determinism

Answer 5

Your emotions affect your actions. Your actions affect your emotions.

Question 6

Individual differences

Answer 6

No two people are exactly the same. People differ in how we experience the same situation based on interrelations of different influences. (Children raised in same family are different)

Question 7

Multiple levels of influence make psychological science very difficult

Answer 7

Cannot practically look at all levels in a single research study

Question 8

Science

Answer 8

An approach to evidence, to keep from fooling ourselves. Instead of basing ideas on opinions, scientists test which explanations best fit the evidence. It is the use of systematic observations in order to acquire knowledge.

Question 9

Scientific thinking.

Answer 9

Based on science. Scientific explanations are subject to change when evidence doesn’t support them.

Question 10

Self-correction

Answer 10

Scientific explanations are subject to change when evidence doesn’t support them.

Question 11

Scientific Method

Answer 11

1. Rationalism: Logical analysis of patterns and causes in nature
2. Empiricism: Use of systemic observation (empiricism)
3. Testable hypothesis:
   -Claim can be tested: either confirmed or disconfirmed (falsifiability)
   -Claim will be rejected if later evidence doesn’t confirm (replicability failure)

Question 12

Theory

Answer 12

A set of interrelated propositions aimed at organizing and explaining facts regarding a particular aspect of nature. (Eg: Theory of evolution, etc)

Question 13

Hypothesis

Answer 13

A specific prediction of how different events (variables) might be related, based on a theory.

Question 14

Functions of Theories AKA Cycle of Science

Answer 14

• Organize knowledge: Facts are related in organized pattern. Specific events can be tied to generate laws.
• Guide research: Determine the questions (hypothesis) that are asked and what is studied.

Question 15

Schema Theory

Answer 15

Example of a psychology theory.
- Mind uses categories to organize information, guide perception and organize memories.
- Schemas shape how we perceive, interpret and store information.

Question 16

Example of cycle of science

Answer 16

Theory (schema theory) -> Testable hypothesis: Children’s schemas about gender will influence memories for gender-stereotypical vs counter-stereotypical events) -> Research study: Show children some drawings of (traditionally appearing) girls and boys engaging in either stereotypical or counter-stereotypical activities; asked to recall pics a week later -> Result: When making errors, children were more likely to recall counter-stereotypical as stereotypical than reverse -> Helps to confirm Schema theory (cycles back to theory)

Question 17

Science is a safeguard against bias

Answer 17

• Confirmation bias: Tendencies to focus on examples that support our beliefs and ignore contradicting evidence.
• Belief perseverance: Tendency to maintain beliefs even when evidence contradicts them (EG: Ppl believe vaccines cause autism)
• Science can reduce, but not eliminate - these and other biases

Question 18

Science forces us to question our findings and conclusions

Answer 18

• Good scientists are aware they might be wrong
• Scientific knowledge is always tentative and open to revision.
• Be skeptical of findings from a single study about something. Need for replication (testing if same findings repeat in other studies)

Question 19

Essential elements of Science

Answer 19

• Systematic observations is its core
• It is cumulative and built upon
• It is democratic
• Systematic observations leads to hypotheses we can test

Question 20

Code of ethics include

Answer 20

1. Informed Consent: Telling the participant about the study and giving them the choice to consent/decline.
2. Confidentiality: Info about participants shouldn’t be made public w/o consent
3. Benefits: Weight the benefits of the experiment against the risks posed to participants.
4. Deception: If deception is required during a study, a debriefing should be conducted with participants after its completion

Question 21

Empirical methods

Answer 21

Approaches to inquiry that are tied to actual measurements and observation

Question 22

Ethics

Answer 22

Professional guidelines that offer researchers a template for making decisions that protect against research participants from potential harm and that helps steer scientists away from conflict of interests or other situations that might compromise the integrity of their research.

Question 23

Hypotheses

Answer 23

Logical ideas that can be tested

Question 24

Systematic observations

Answer 24

The careful observations of the natural world with the aim of better understanding it. Observations provide the basic data allowing scientists to track, tally or organize information about the natural world.

Question 25

Facts

Answer 25

Observations of the world around us

Question 26

Law

Answer 26

A statement based on repeated experimental observations that describes some phenomenon of nature. Doesn’t tell us why something happens, it’s a detailed description using math of how something happens.

Question 27

Independent Variable

Answer 27

Under the experimenter’s control. The variable intentionally changed between groups in a study.

Question 28

Dependent Variable

Answer 28

It is the ‘effect’ in a study. Depends on what happens to the independent variable.

Question 29

Random assignment

Answer 29

Participants don’t choose what condition they’re put in. Allows scientists to give groups similar characteristics. Distribution of certain types of participants remains more or less consistent in all groups. Ensures the only vital difference between these groups is the independent variable.

Question 30

Confounds

Answer 30

Things that can undermine your ability to draw casual inferences. Eg: Telling a participant they’re getting a happy pill (Participant is influenced by placebo effect and reports higher happiness)

Question 31

Participant Demand

Answer 31

When participants behave in a way they think the experimenter wants them to do. Defeats purpose of natural behavior observation and doesn’t provide accurate data.

Question 32

Experimenter Expectations

Answer 32

Experimenter expects people taking the happy pill to be happier so he incorrectly inputs this perception in the data. (gives them a higher score than the actual data)

Question 33

Double-blind procedure

Answer 33

A way to prevent experimenter expectations, confounds. Neither the participant nor the experimenter knows the condition the participant is put into. Eg: Experiment doesn’t know if he’s giving participant happy pill or not, and nor does the participant.

Question 34

Correlation Research

Answer 34

When scientists passively observe and measure phenomena. Identify patterns of relationships, but can’t infer what caused them. Eg: Seeing how much income a person donated to charity and how happy they were.

Question 35

Scatterplot

Answer 35

Plotting the relationship between two variables

Question 36

Correlation coefficient

Answer 36

Provides information about the direction and strength of the association between two variables. (+1 = perfect positive correlation and -1 = perfect negative correlation)

Question 37

Correlation does not prove causation

Answer 37

R value shows how strong correlation is. bigger whole value (negative or positive) stronger correlation.

Question 38

Qualitative designs.

Answer 38

Allow for observation.
1. Participant observation: Researcher is embedded in group to study their dynamics
2. Case study: Intensive examination of specific individuals or specific contexts
3. Narrative analysis: Instead of quantifying their responses or behaviors or engaging with participants directly, researchers will examine people’s personal testimonies in order to learn more about the psychology of those individuals or groups.

Question 39

Quasi-experimental design

Answer 39

Doesn’t assign participants’ conditions, treats existing group dynamics as the independent variable. Observig casual inferences is harder.

Question 40

Longitudinal study

Answer 40

Studies the same people over the years

Question 41

Survey

Answer 41

A way of gathering information using questionnaires. Experiments and correlation experiments use this.

Question 42

Practical concerns that determine which method of research is used.

Answer 42

• Resource availability: Time and money
• Ethics of study:

Question 43

Operational definitions

Answer 43

How researchers specifically measure a concept