LECTURE 3

Question 1

Variables (factors)

Answer 1

Features about a person or a situation that vary and can be measured. Eg: Popularity, self-esteem, assigned activity etc

Question 2

Operational definition

Answer 2

The way a particular variable is defined and measured

Question 3

Two types of variables

Answer 3

Objective and Conceptual.
Objective variables: Events that can be directly measured. Eg: Duration of a conversation, correct recall of items.
Conceptual variables: Abstract ideas that need to be converted to measured variables. Eg: Gender identity, popularity.

Question 4

Hypothesis

Answer 4

Predictions about how two or more variables might be related. Stated in a way that can be tested.

Question 5

Objectivity and Replication

Answer 5

Operational definitions are basis for objectivity in scientific research.
- Can evaluate how well a scientist measured their variables
- Can test if same findings can be repeated (replication)

Question 6

Types of research in psychology

Answer 6

• Descriptive
• Experimental
• Correlation

Question 7

Norm

Answer 7

The values standardly held by a particular community. (What usually occurs)

Question 8

Descriptive Research

Answer 8

Goal: Identify norms regarding a particular event
Some descriptive questions: Who? When? Where? How many? How often? How much?
Especially helpful when exploring a topic that is not well-understood.

Question 9

Strengths and Limitations of Descriptive Research

Answer 9

Strength: Especially helpful when exploring a topic that is not well understood
Limitation: May not generalize (especially if small sample)
Limitation: Doesn’t provide evidence for patterns among variable

Question 10

Correlational Research

Answer 10

Goal: Test for association (co-relations) between two or more variables (prediction)
Correlational question: Does the value of one variable predict the value of another variable?

Question 11

Research use statistical test of correlation

Answer 11

Is the association between two variables significantly less likely than chance

Question 12

Some methods of correlation

Answer 12

• Observation
• Surveys
• Recordings

Question 13

Types of correlation

Note: Variables are rarely (if ever) perfectly correlated

Answer 13

Positive correlation: Two variables tend to increase (or decrease) together. (Example: No. of friends and self-esteem)

Negative correlation: Two variables tend to go in opposite directions (Eg: Conservative attitudes and support for anti-racism programs)

Question 14

Correlation does not prove causation

Answer 14

Finding that two variables are correlated does not prove causation. Prediction (correlation) is not the same as causation.
One possibility: A third factor might cause both variables. Eg: income and happiness are correlated, however this doesn’t mean income causes happiness. Association might be caused to a third variable such as education (which increases chances of both higher happiness and income)

Question 15

Strengths and Limitations of Correlational Research

Answer 15

Strength: Can identify statistically reliable patterns among events
Limitations: Cannot prove causation among events

Question 16

Experimental Research

Answer 16

Goal: Test if a change in one variable causes a change in another variable (explanation)
Experimental Question: How? Why? (explanation)

Question 17

Method used in experimental research

Answer 17

Controlled experiments (to test for cause and effect)

Question 18

Example of an experiment

Answer 18

Hypothesis: Exercise can help students do better on a math test
Hypothesis cause and effect: exercise -> test math performance

Independent Variable: Hypothesized cause = Exercise
At least 2 groups get different conditions
- Group 1: Exercise before a test
- Group 2 : No exercise before a test

Dependent variable: Hypothesized effect = Math performance. IF
Group 1 does significantly better than Group 2, evidence for a causal influence

Question 19

Strength and Limitations of Experimental Research

Answer 19

Strength: Can provide evidence for causation
Limitation: Restrictions needed to conduct an experiment may limit generalizability to real-life experiences (See External Validity)

Question 20

Complementary Research Method

Answer 20

• Descriptive, correlational and experimental methods are complementary
• Each can play a valuable role in our scientific understanding of events
• Mixed methods: Researchers may use combination of methods

Question 21

External Validity

Answer 21

Do research findings generalize beyond the sample and methods used in your study. Generalizations to: Other samples (background), other measures, other situations.

Question 22

External validity

Answer 22

Sampling and generality: Should be inclusive to all groups and communities, not just a chosen few.