4- Developmental Psychology Flashcards

Question

Research has found all of the following to be true regarding aggressiveness in children and adolescents except: Select one: A. aggressive youth are more likely than their peers to believe that aggressive behavior will have positive outcomes. B. aggressive youth have fewer behavioral responses to social situations than their peers. C. aggressive youth are more likely than their peers to base their interpretation of social interactions on cues that occurred at the beginning of the social interactions. D. aggressive youth are more likely than their peers to misinterpret other's behaviors as intentionally hostile.

Answer 1

Correct Answer is: C The recency effect has been shown to be more pronounced than the primacy effect in regards to aggressiveness in children and adolescents. That is, they are more likely to focus on cues that occurred at the end of a social interaction than at the beginning. All of the other statements regarding youth aggressiveness are true. Additional Information: Origins of Aggression

Answer 2

Correct Answer is: D The use of two-word sentences, called telegraphic speech, normally appears between the age of 1-2 years. It would rarely be absent by the age of 30 months; if it is, a developmental evaluation is justified. Additional Information: Sequence of Language Development

Answer 3

Correct Answer is: C Conservation is the ability to understand that changing an object's appearance doesn't change the object's physical qualities. For example, water poured from a tall thin glass into a short wide glass will be conserved, or understood to be the same amount of water. Conservation develops during the concrete operations stage (7 to 12 years). Note that there may be slight variations between age ranges that you have studied and the age ranges presented in test questions. In this case, the most correct choice is 7 to 10 years, which falls within the 7 to 12 year range. This choice, 11 to 13 years, overlaps between the high end of concrete operations and the low end of formal operations (12 onward) - which is not as good a choice for the typical development of concrete operations. Additional Information: Concrete Operational Stage (Piaget)

Answer 4

Correct Answer is: D This is a difficult question because it provides so little information about Jesse Jr.'s behavior. However, it is normal for children to show distress before and after visits to the noncustodial parent, especially during the first few months after the divorce. (For sexual abuse to be the right answer, you'd want to see more severe symptoms that last for a longer period of time.) Additional Information: Effects on Children (Divorce)

Answer 5

Correct Answer is: B Sensitive periods are times in development when a particular type of experience is necessary for development to occur. In the situation described in this question, a temporary loss of hearing during a sensitive period has had long-term repercussions. [See M. Rutter, Continuities and discontinuities from infancy, in J. D. Osofsky (ed.), Handbook of Infant Development, New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1987.] Additional Information: Critical versus Sensitive Periods

Answer 6

Correct Answer is: A Resilience in children can be defined as the ability to end up with good outcomes despite threats to development or adaptation such as low socioeconomic status, an absent parent, or severe marital discord in parents. Michael Rutter, a British psychologist who studied at-risk children in London and the Isle of Wight, identified three categories of factors that increase resiliency: positive individual personality in the child, a supportive family, and at least one supportive community agency such as a school or church. In other similar studies, the same protective triad of factors has emerged. Examples of each type of factor are given: Individual: social competence, positive sense of self, easygoing, good problem-solving skills; Family: authoritative parents who are warm and firm, parents who provide clear expectations, parents invested in their child's education; Community: specific role model in community agency connected to child, good schools, supportive friends and neighbors, well delineated community. Additional Information: Risk and Resilience

Answer 7

Correct Answer is: C Conservation is the ability to understand that changing an object's appearance doesn't change the object's physical qualities. For example, water poured from a tall thin glass into a short wide glass will be conserved, or understood to be the same amount of water. Conservation develops during the concrete operations stage (7 to 12 years). Note that there may be slight variations between age ranges that you have studied and the age ranges presented in test questions. In this case, the most correct choice is 7 to 10 years, which falls within the 7 to 12 year range. This choice, 11 to 13 years, overlaps between the high end of concrete operations and the low end of formal operations (12 onward) - which is not as good a choice for the typical development of concrete operations. Additional Information: Concrete Operational Stage (Piaget)

Answer 8

Correct Answer is: C The research is far from consistent on this issue. However, lack of parental supervision is frequently found as a correlate of delinquency along with a hostile relationship between parent and adolescent and parental rejection. Low SES, low IQ score, single-parent homes, and harsh discipline have weaker relationships with delinquency.

Answer 9

Correct Answer is: A Speech-act theory, originated by Austin (1962) then further developed by Searle (1969), proposes by understanding the detail of what is being said or uttered, people will understand and communicate better with others. Specifically, a verbal utterance is defined in terms of its content, the intention of the speaker, and the effect on the listener. A locutionary act is an utterance of a meaningful sentence or statement, the act of saying something. An illocutionary act* intends to communicate. It is the way in which something is said. A perlocutionary act* seeks to change behavior. It is the effect of what was said on the listener or speech acts that have an effect on the feelings, thoughts or actions of either the speaker or the listener. A propositional act* is something referenced, but no communication may be intended (* incorrect options). According to the theory, a speech act necessarily involves a locutionary act but may or may not involve an illocutionary act and a perlocutionary act. (See: Austin, J. L. (1962), How to do Things with Words. Oxford. Searle, J. R. (1969), Speech Acts. An Essay in the Philosophy of Language. Cambridge.)

Answer 10

Correct Answer is: A According to the research of Baumrind, permissive or Laissez fairre parents express warmth but use little discipline. Their children have difficulty controlling their impulses and, although they are intelligent, they are not motivated to achieve. authoritative Authoritative parents, who are described as being high in control (demandingness) and high in warmth (responsiveness) tend to raise children who are most resilient to the stresses of life. These children have better coping skills, are more mature, responsible, and perform better on cognitive measures. authoritarian Authoritarian parents are high in control, but low in warmth. Their children are often insecure, dependent, and perform more poorly on cognitive tests. rejecting Uninvolved/rejecting/neglecting parents are low in both control and warmth and their children have the worst coping skills. The children tend to be antisocial, lack self-regulation, are more immature, and score lower on cognitive tests. Additional Information: Parental Influences on Personality

Answer 11

Correct Answer is: D Elkind identified two aspects of the adolescent's renewed egocentrism. The imaginary audience is the belief that one is always "on stage" ; the personal fable is the belief that one is unique and invulnerable. Elkind describes how young adolescents are preoccupied by themselves because they are undergoing major physiological changes and identified two aspects of the adolescent's renewed egocentrism. Their egocentrism, based on the belief that others are as preoccupied with their appearance and behavior as they are, consequently results in their anticipating other's thoughts and responses about them, and then constantly creating or reacting to an imaginary audience. Elkind noted this likely plays a role in the self-consciousness so common in early adolescence. social norms. Social norms are the rules that a group uses for appropriate and inappropriate values, beliefs, attitudes and behaviors. These rules may be explicit or implicit. social referencing. Social referencing is considered a sign of attachment between a child and its caregiver. a personal fable. The second aspect Elkind introduced was the idea of the personal fable wherein adolescents construct a story or view about their personal uniqueness or the uniqueness of their experiences and feelings. An example of this is the common conviction that the adolescent will not die. Elkind believes the egocentrism of early adolescence usually lessens by the age of 15 or 16 as cognitive development proceeds.

Answer 12

Correct Answer is: C Piaget distinguished two stages of moral development: heteronomous and autonomous. Heteronomous morality is characteristic of children 4-7 years old. The heteronomous child views rules as "absolute" and unchangeable and believes that punishment should fit the consequences of the behavior, regardless of the intentions of the actor ("punishment should be based on the damage caused by a behavior"). By age 7 or 8 children begin to exhibit autonomous morality, in which they realize that rules are determined, and agreed to, by individuals and are, therefore, alterable. They also consider the intention of the actor to be most important in determining punishment. Additional Information: Piaget's Theory of Moral Development

Answer 13

Correct Answer is: C This is a difficult question because the research results on childhood sexual abuse are inconsistent. Many studies have found no consistent gender differences in impact or pattern of symptoms, while other studies have found a more negative impact for females than for males. One of the complicating factors has been the definition of childhood sexual abuse - which includes consensual sex involving a minor when there is a significant age difference between the two parties. However, when only non-consensual types of childhood sexual abuse are examined, males and females are equivalently affected [B. Rind, P. Tromovitch, R. Bauserman, A meta-analytic examination of assumed properties of child sexual abuse using college samples, Psychological Bulletin, 124(1), 1998, 22-53]. Additional Information: Characteristics of Abused Children

Answer 14

Correct Answer is: C Kohlberg distinguishes between three levels of moral development (preconventional, conventional, and postconventional), and each of these levels is further divided into two stages. The individual described in this question is in the first stage of the preconventional level. At the preconventional level, morality is based on the consequences of an act. Good behaviors are rewarded and bad behaviors are punished. The next level is conventional, in which morality is guided by the desire to maintain existing social laws, rules, and norms. At the post-conventional* or principled morality* level, individuals view morality in terms of self-chosen principles, where one functions according to one's own conscience, no matter what the conventional wisdom is. Heteronomous morality* is a term use by Piaget to describe preschool children who believe that rules are absolute and unchangeable (* incorrect options.)

Answer 15

Correct Answer is: B Overextension refers to the use of a word to label a set of objects that is broader than the set the object or objects to which the word is intended to refer. In this case, the child is apparently using the word horse to refer to other four-legged animals; therefore, he is displaying overextension. Overextension is common in the speech of toddlers. Regarding the other choices, underextension is the opposite of overextension; it occurs when a child does not generalize the word's usage broadly enough. Overregularization refers to grammatical errors whereby a child uses a regular form for a word when the correct form is irregular (e.g., "holded" instead of held). Underregularization is a made up term. Additional Information: Language Errors

Answer 16

Correct Answer is: C Crisis and commitment are the core variables in Marcia's four identity status model. Identity diffusion* describes young people who have not undergone an identity crisis nor have committed to an identity. Identity foreclosure* is characterized by a commitment to an identity (e.g., career) that is not the result of an identity crisis, but rather, the suggestions of a parent or significant other. In moratorium*, the individual is confused, in a state of crisis, has made no commitment and is actively exploring different options (* incorrect options). Identity achievement signifies that the adolescent has surmounted the crisis and made a commitment.

Answer 17

Correct Answer is: D While adults 65 years and older generally report the most memories for events that occurred within the ten years before being evaluated, the next largest recall of autobiographical memories is from adolescence and early adulthood. In other words, recent and remote events are more frequently recalled than intermediate events.

Answer 18

Correct Answer is: C Results of the Seattle Training Study not only demonstrated that behavioral interventions can remediate verbal and nonverbal skills (e.g., inductive reasoning, spatial orientation) in elderly adults but, for about 40% of participants, raise these skills to pre-decline levels. Additional Information: Age and Intelligence

Answer 19

Correct Answer is: B Kohlberg distinguishes between three levels of moral development (preconventional, conventional, and postconventional). At the preconventional level, morality is based on the consequences of an act. Good behaviors are rewarded and bad behaviors are punished. The next level is conventional, in which morality is guided by the desire to maintain existing social laws, rules, and norms. In the post-conventional level individuals view morality in terms of self-chosen principles. Heteronomous morality is a term use by Piaget to describe preschool children who believe that rules are absolute and unchangeable. Additional Information: Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Answer 20

Correct Answer is: B The "operations stages" refer to Piaget's concrete operations and formal operations stages. The stages prior to the operations stages are the sensorimotor and "preoperations," which, as its name implies, occurs before the development of operations abilities. The development of decentration and reversibility form the basis for conservation, which is the characteristic achievement of concrete operations (7 to 12 years). Object permanence is achieved during the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years). Symbolic thought develops during the preoperations stage (2 to 7 years) resulting in the development of language and pretend play. Magical thinking is also characteristic of preoperational thought. Additional Information: Concrete Operational Stage (Piaget)

Answer 21

Correct Answer is: C Research has indicated that infants develop depth perception in a predictable sequence: kinetic, binocular, and pictorial. Kinetic depth cues are based on movements of objects in the environment or the body. Babies as young as 3 weeks begin perceiving kinetic cues. For example, they will blink their eyes defensively when an object approaches their face and looks as if its going to hit them. Binocular depth perception begins between 2 and 3 months. And pictorial depth cues, which are used by artists to make paintings look three-dimensional, begins to develop at about 7 months of age. Additional Information: Development During Infancy

Answer 22

Correct Answer is: B Phonemes are considered to be the most basic units of speech. They can be single letters which distinguish one word from another. For example, the letters "c" and "h" distinguish "cat" from "hat". Phonemes combine to form morphemes, which are words or parts of words which carry meaning. Holophrases are whole words which are combined with gestures and intonation to express an entire thought. Additional Information: Components of Language

Answer 23

Correct Answer is: D Elkind identified two aspects of the adolescent's renewed egocentrism. The imaginary audience is the belief that one is always "on stage"; the personal fable is the belief that one is unique and invulnerable. Additional Information: Formal Operational Stage (Piaget)

Answer 24

Correct Answer is: C Freud's anal stage of psychosexual development and Erikson's autonomy versus shame and doubt stage occur between the ages of one and three. Freud's oral stage occurs from birth to one year, the phallic stage from three to six years and the genital stage is associated with adolescence.

Answer 25

Correct Answer is: A This is an example of inductive reasoning, or reasoning from a particular fact to a general rule. Symbolic thought is the understanding that one thing can stand for another; deductive reasoning is reasoning from a general law to a particular case.

Answer 26

Correct Answer is: D The vast majority of empirical studies indicate that very few abilities and traits that distinguish males from females are biologically determined. In other words, the things typically viewed as either inherently masculine or feminine are actually defined and developed through socialization. However, there are some characteristics that seem to transcend socialization. Aggression is the only one of the four response choices that appears to be more related to hormones than learning, with boys being naturally more active and having higher aggressive drives than girls. It is important to note though, recent research has found that gender differences in aggression needs to be qualified: Boys are more overtly (physically and verbally) aggressive than girls, but girls display more relational aggression - i.e., they try to harm or exert control over others by withdrawing their acceptance or friendship (Crick & Grotpeter, 1995).

Answer 27

Correct Answer is: B Bowlby used the term "internal working models" to describe the cognitive representations that children develop of themselves and others. He believed that these models are formed during early childhood, but continue to develop over time. Additional Information: Attachment Theories

Answer 28

Correct Answer is: D Erikson is among those developmental psychologists who postulate qualitatively different stages we pass through from birth to senescence. Erikson's final stage is called integrity versus despair. That is, in the last stage we look at our life and say "I did the best I could" or, alternatively, "I regret what I did."

Answer 29

Correct Answer is: A Stranger anxiety can first appear as early as 6 months of age, but it usually begins in infants between 8 and 10 months of age, peaks at about 18 months of age, and then gradually declines during the end of the second year. Additional Information: Attachment Signs

Answer 30

Correct Answer is: C From her research on the personality characteristics of adults aged 40-70, Neugarten (1968) found midlife to be characterized by this shift in perspective. This finding followed the Kansas City Study findings that people around age 50 experience a transition from active to passive mastery and outer to inner-world orientation. Levinson's "seasons of a man's life" and Erikson's stages are theories of adult personality development that address developmental conflicts Additional Information: Levinson's "Seasons of a Man's Life"

Answer 31

Correct Answer is: B Piaget's theory of cognitive development identifies four developmental stages, roughly correlated with specific age ranges. As children progress through these stages, their methods of assimilating new information, accommodating existing cognitive structures to new information, and mentally representing information in general become more sophisticated. The third stage, concrete operational, develops around the ages of 7-11. During this phase, children develop the ability to employ a number of logical operations they use to solve concrete (as opposed to abstract) problems. One of these operations, called reversibility, involves the ability to imagine that objects can be changed and then restored to their original state. The child described by the question is using reversibility. Regarding the other choices, conservation is the ability to understand that quantity or fundamental properties of an object are not necessarily related to the object's appearance. A child displaying conservation of liquid would know, for example, that the quantity of water does not decrease when it is poured from a tall thin glass to a short wide glass. Reversibility is a sign that conservation abilities are present but reversibility is a better answer for this question because it more specifically applies to this child. Multiple classification, another characteristic of concrete operational thought, is the ability to classify objects into more than one applicable category. And hypothetico-deductive reasoning involves the ability to generate multiple theories for a phenomenon and choose one theory over others based on reasoning and evidence. Hypothetico-deductive reasoning is a sign of formal operational thought, the final stage of Piaget's theory. Additional Information: Concrete Operational Stage (Piaget)

Answer 32

Correct Answer is: A Identity process theory proposes that adjustment to aging can be conceptualized as involving the three processes of identity assimilation (maintaining self-consistency), identity accommodation (making changes in the self), and identity balance (maintaining a sense of self but changing when necessary). Despite the changes in the relationship with his son, Frank continues to think of himself as having a loving relationship in order to maintain his consistent sense of self. Research indicates only identity balance is positively related to internal state awareness, suggesting that the ability to incorporate age-related changes within an identity and at the same time maintain a consistent and positive view of the self is most conducive to successful aging. (See: Sneed, J.R. & Whitbourne, S.K. (2003). Identity Processing and Self-Consciousness in Middle and Later Adulthood. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 58, 313-319.)

Answer 33

Correct Answer is: C In the area of language development and acquisition, "bootstrapping" refers to how a child must somehow "lift him/herself up by his/her bootstraps" to begin formulating a grammar for the language. Syntactic bootstrapping proposes that the sentence structure surrounding a new word provides clues to its meaning and, in this case, the language-learning child uses his/her developed syntactic knowledge to help learn the meaning of new words. Semantic bootstrapping refers to the idea that children utilize conceptual knowledge to create grammatical categories. Under this approach, the meanings of words are used to identify the semantic category and then are inferred or "bootstrapped" to the syntax. Prosodic bootstrapping suggests children find and use clues to syntactic structure of language in the prosodic (intonation, stress) characteristics of the speech they hear. Phonological bootstrapping refers to the hypothesis that clues to the grammar of language are found in phonological (sound) properties of the speech heard. (See: Pinker, S. (1987). The Bootstrapping Problem in Language Acquisition. In B. MacWhinney (Ed.), Mechanisms of Language Acquisition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. And: Weissenborn, J. & Hohle, B. (Eds.) (2001). Approaches to bootstrapping: Phonological, lexical, syntactic and neurophysiological aspects of early language acquisition. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.)

Answer 34

Correct Answer is: A When children with a disability or a chronic illness reach adolescence, problems often arise due to their increased awareness and understanding of the problem, coupled with an enhanced desire to be similar to their peers. Sometimes, the adolescent may become depressed and act-out in ways that, given the person's condition, are gravely dangerous. For instance, the adolescent may show reduced compliance with the prescribed treatment regimen. Additional Information: Chronic Illness in Childhood and Adolescence

Answer 35

Correct Answer is: B A child with an avoidant pattern of attachment typically appears uninterested in the environment, shows little distress when the mother leaves and avoids contact with her when she returns. Additional Information: Attachment Patterns

Answer 36

Correct Answer is: A Drinking alcohol anytime during pregnancy can have adverse effects on the fetus. However, alcohol consumption during the first trimester is more likely to cause structural and anatomical defects, characteristic of fetal alcohol syndrome. Consumption during the second and third trimesters is more likely to result in growth restriction and functional impairment. (Health Canada, population and public health branch, Canadian perinatal surveillance system: Alcohol and pregnancy, 1998, retrieved from http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hpb/lcdc/brch/factshts/alcprg_e.html). Additional Information: Teratogens

Answer 37

Correct Answer is: B As defined by Piaget, equilibration is a state of cognitive balance. The need for balance is what motivates the individual to assimilate and accommodate new information. Additional Information: Piaget's Constructivist Theory (Introduction)

Answer 38

Correct Answer is: D According to the nativist view of language acquisition, a biological aspect is responsible for language development. The behaviorist theory focuses on the role of classical and operant conditioning on language. The interactionist theory suggests a link between the environmental and biological factors in the process of acquiring language. According to Searle's Speech Act theory (1969), an individual is doing one of five things when talking: asserting, directing, commiserating, expressing and declaring. Searle's five illocutionary/perlocutionary points include: assertives, which are statements that may be viewed as true or false because they strive to describe a state of affairs in the world; directives, which are statements that attempt to make the other person's actions fit the propositional content; commissives are statements which commit the speaker to a course of action as described by the propositional content; expressives are statements that express the "sincerity condition of the speech act" ; and declaratives are statements that attempt to change the world by "representing it as having been changed." (See: Searle, J. R. (1969), Speech Acts. An Essay in the Philosophy of Language. Cambridge.) Additional Information: Nativist Theories

Answer 39

Correct Answer is: B Children vary considerably in terms of developmental milestones, but about 50% of children are walking well alone by 12 months and 90% by 14 months. Additional Information: Motor Skills

Answer 40

Correct Answer is: D The Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) assesses an individual's childhood relationships with his or her mother and father and classifies the individual's attachment style as autonomous, preoccupied, or dismissing. Individuals presenting inconsistent and incoherent descriptions of their childhood relationships with parents are categorized as dismissing. Examinees that supply coherent descriptions of their childhood relationships categorized as "autonomous" and individuals who may be preoccupied with a parent and become very confused or angry when describing their childhood relationships with parents are classified as preoccupied.

Answer 41

Correct Answer is: B Otitis media with effusion (OME) refers to fluid in the middle ear without symptoms of an acute ear infection. The condition occurs most commonly in children aged 0-3. Because affected children do not display obvious symptoms such as infection or fever, the condition may go untreated for months, with hearing adversely affected during this time. A history of otitis media is twice as common in learning disabled children as those without learning disabilities. This is probably because the condition can reduce exposure to language during critical periods of language development, though some have identified other possible reasons, such as a higher incidence of OME in children in lower socioeconomic groups. Additional Information: Etiology (Specific Learning Disorder)

Answer 42

Correct Answer is: D Three types of cries have been identified in newborn infants: a cry for hunger, a cry for anger, and a cry for pain. A fourth cry, one for attention, develops later than the other types -- about three weeks after birth. Parents quickly become adept at distinguishing between these cries, and research indicates that they are better at distinguishing their own babies' cries than those of a strange infant. Additional Information: Crying in Infancy

Answer 43

Correct Answer is: C You may have been able to answer this question if you think about your own responses to an infant's cries. Although parents have a stronger physiological response to their own infants, just about everyone seems to have some response to a crying baby, although it may be of less intensity. In addition, the different kinds of cries produce different responses. Not surprisingly, a stronger response is elicited by a pain cry than by a hunger or anger cry. Additional Information: Crying in Infancy

Answer 44

Correct Answer is: D Kohlberg's theory of moral development focuses on moral judgment and distinguishes judgment from moral action. Kohlberg proposes the higher the moral reasoning, the more likely moral action is and the greater the consistency is between moral judgment and action because the higher stages increasingly employ more stable and general principles. Additional Information: Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Answer 45

Correct Answer is: D A number of techniques have been found useful for reducing aggression in children, but many of them (e.g., catharsis) have only short-term effects. In the long run, the best thing to do is to teach aggressive children alternative, nonaggressive, prosocial behaviors, which is a component of social-skills training. Additional Information: Reducing Aggression

Answer 46

Correct Answer is: C Stepparent-stepchild relationships have been investigated by Hetherington and others, who have found that stepfathers are generally uninvolved in the raising and discipline of their stepchildren (although the relationship between stepfathers and stepsons may improve somewhat over time).

Answer 47

Correct Answer is: C Research on the effects of television violence on children's behavior demonstrates that viewing aggressive models is associated with increased aggressive behavior. Moreover, these effects can be long-lasting; they have been observed in longitudinal studies lasting up to 22 years. Additional Information: Social Learning Theory

Answer 48

Correct Answer is: B According to the research of Baumrind, authoritative parents, who are described as being high in control (demandingness) and high in warmth (responsiveness) tend to raise children who are most resilient to the stresses of life. These children have better coping skills, are more mature, responsible, and perform better on cognitive measures. [D. Baumrind, The influence of parenting style on adolescent competence and substance use, Journal of Early Adolescence, 1991, 11(1), 56-95]. low in control and high in warmth Permissive or Laissez fairre parents express warmth but use little discipline. Their children have difficulty controlling their impulses and, although they are intelligent, they are not motivated to achieve. high in demandingness and low in responsiveness Authoritarian parents are high in control, but low in warmth. Their children are often insecure, dependent, and perform more poorly on cognitive tests. low in demandingness and low in responsiveness Uninvolved/rejecting/neglecting parents are low in both control and warmth and their children have the worst coping skills. The children tend to be antisocial, lack self-regulation, are more immature, and score lower on cognitive tests. Additional Information: Parental Influences on Personality

Answer 49

Correct Answer is: B Even if you had never heard of social referencing, you may have been able to pick the right answer by the process of elimination (i.e., hopefully, you know what social facilitation, social inhibition, and social comparison are since they are topics that could appear on the exam and are covered in the study materials; social distancing is a ficticious term). Social referencing is considered a sign of attachment between a child and its caregiver. Additional Information: Attachment Signs

Answer 50

Correct Answer is: D Kohlberg's cognitive-developmental theory of gender concept development, grounded in Piagetian theory, asserts that children gradually progress through three stages. Gender identity, usually gained by age three, is the ability to correctly label own gender and identify others as boys/men and girls/women. Gender stability - knowledge, usually gained by age four years, that reflects an understanding that one's gender remains the same throughout life. Gender constancy: realization, around age 5, 6 or 7 years, that one's gender stays the same even with alterations in appearance, behaviors, or desires.

Answer 51

Correct Answer is: B In the Montessori classroom, children are encouraged to select their own activities; the teacher observes the children and assists them when they truly need help. There is very little didactic group teaching. The method is based on the assumption that the child is an active learner whose drive for self-development is aided by an orderly but stimulating environment. children are grouped by developmental level rather than by age. This option is incorrect because the Montessori classroom is heterogeneous in regard to both age and developmental level -- older children are viewed as good role models for younger children. it emphasizes emotional development and academic achievement. This is not an incorrect statement about the Montessori method, but it is not something that distinguishes it from other educational methods. its focus on group activities and learning experiences. Contrary to this choice, critics of the Montessori method have cited its lack of opportunity for group learning experiences as one of its weaknesses. Additional Information: Montessori Method

Answer 52

Correct Answer is: B Unlike studies on children growing up in the 1960's which found aggressive behavior only in males, Huesmann et al. (2003) found childhood exposure to TV violence is stimulating an increase in adult aggression in males and females. This effect persists even when the effects of socioeconomic status, intellectual ability, and a variety of parenting factors are controlled. More childhood exposure to TV violence, greater childhood identification with same-sex aggressive TV characters, and a stronger childhood belief that violent shows tell about life "just like it is" predicted more adult aggression regardless of the initial aggressiveness of the child. (See: Rowell Huesmann, L., Moise-Titus, J., Podolski, C., and Eron, L.D. (2003). Longitudinal Relations Between Children's Exposure to TV Violence and Their Aggressive and Violent Behavior in Young Adulthood: 1977-1992. Psychology-Developmental Psychology, 39(2), 201-221.) Additional Information: Social Learning Theory

Answer 53

Correct Answer is: D Nearly all of the neurons are present at birth, and continued development of the brain following birth is due primarily to an increased number of dendrites and myelination of the existing neurons. Additional Information: Brain Development

Answer 54

Correct Answer is: C Older and younger adults both fall prey to the stereotype that substantial memory loss is a natural part of the aging process and automatically attribute memory problems in older people to their advanced age. Additional Information: Memory in Adulthood

Answer 55

Correct Answer is: A According to Piaget and researchers who have studied his theories, adolescents are prone to what has been termed "formal operational egocentrism" or "adolescent egocentrism." This is characterized by a number of beliefs and modes of thinking, including the belief that the world can only become a better place through implementation of a grand idealistic system, the belief that others are as concerned with the adolescent's behavior as the adolescent him- or herself is, and (as in this question) a strong faith in one's own invulnerability and uniqueness. Additional Information: Formal Operational Stage (Piaget)

Answer 56

Correct Answer is: A Klinefelter's Syndrome only affects males and is caused by an extra X chromosome (XXY). Males with this disorder have typical masculine interests in childhood and develop a normal male identity, but they show an incomplete development of secondary sex characteristics and are often sterile. Klinefelter's does not typically cause severe mental retardation, although most experience some degree of impairment in language and some do have mild mental retardation [R. Bock, Understanding Klinefelter Syndrome: A guide for XXY males and their families (NIH Pub. No. 93-3202), August 1993, Retrieved from http://www.genetic.org/ks/scvs/KS_NIH.htm]. Finally, while some "XXY males" do not develop the syndrome, Klinefelter's is not believed to be preventable through diet. The symptoms of phenylketonuria (PKU), on the other hand, are preventable through a diet low in phenylalanine. Additional Information: Chromosomal Abnormalities

Answer 57

Correct Answer is: D Overall, the authoritative style of parenting (as compared to the authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved styles) has the most positive outcomes in children's growth and development - including academic achievement. However, researchers have found that the benefits of authoritative parenting are moderated by ethnicity. Specifically, Hispanics and African-Americans do not appear to benefit as much as Whites from having authoritative parenting. And, although Asian-Americans tend to do well academically, they are least likely to have authoritative parents. [See: L. Steinberg, S.M.Dornbusch, & B.B. Brown. Ethnic Differences in Adolescent Achievement: An Ecological Perspective. American Psychologist, 1992, 47 (6), 723-729]. Additional Information: Parental Influences on Personality

Answer 58

Correct Answer is: D Research on parents' gender-related perceptions of their newborn offspring shows that gender-related stereotypes have declined in the last 20-30 years, but they still exist and both parents perceive girls and boys differently within 24 hours after the child's birth. For example, parents of infant girls tend to describe them as more delicate, more feminine and less strong than parents of boys. These gender-related perceptions may affect how boys and girls are treated and influence gender-related behaviors. Earlier research findings suggested fathers exhibited more stereotypes than mothers, however more recent finding have not found significant differences between fathers and mothers.

Answer 59

Correct Answer is: A Research by Kochanska (1997) has indicated that toddlers' level of fearfulness mediates the effects of parental discipline. Specifically, the use of "gentle discipline" was found more effective for the development of conscience among fearful toddlers than among fearless toddlers. Fearless toddlers, on the other hand, developed conscience better through the use of a secure mother-child attachment. It should be noted that these results were primarily found during the toddler years and were not significant or were less significant when reassessed during preschool years [Multiple pathways to conscience for children with different temperaments: From toddlerhood to age 5, Psychology-Developmental Psychology, 33(2), 228-240]. Additional Information: Parental Influences on Personality

Answer 60

Correct Answer is: B The older brother is using techniques associated with "scaffolding," which was originally described by Vygotsky and refers to the temporary support that parents, teachers, and more experienced children give to a child to help him/her do a task or acquire a skill. Additional Information: Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory

Answer 61

Correct Answer is: B Although separation anxiety sometimes begins as early as 5 or 6 months, it typically has its onset at 8 or 9 months of age, rises dramatically until the age of 18 months, and then gradually falls off until it becomes negligible between the ages of 24-36 months. Prior to the onset of separation anxiety, babies do not typically protest when separated from their primary caretakers, even though a number of attachment behaviors develop during this time. Additional Information: Attachment Signs

Answer 62

Correct Answer is: A This is really a question about child development as well as possible causes of delays in development. By the age of 18 months, a child should be walking and at least saying a few words, and a plausible cause of delays in these areas is sensory deficits, especially visual and auditory deficits. Testing the child's intelligence would probably not be the first thing you would do, even though Mental Retardation could account for these delays. However, you'd want to first rule out physical/sensory deficits before concluding that the problem is due to low intelligence. Additional Information: Development During Infancy

Answer 63

Correct Answer is: A Kohlberg believed that the three levels of moral reasoning reflect different levels of cognitive development, which encompasses changes in social perspective-taking. At the conventional level, the person views an individual as a member of society and bases his/her moral judgments on that conceptualization. Additional Information: Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Answer 64

Correct Answer is: C Between 18 and 24 months, the sense of self emerges and children begin expressing self-conscious emotions. The emergence of self-conscious emotions is a predictable milestone in the sequence of stages during emotional development. (See: L. Berk, Development Through the Lifespan, Boston, Allyn & Bacon, 2004.) Additional Information: Early Emotions

Answer 65

Correct Answer is: B Many theorists and researchers have identified developmental benefits of children's play. Piaget, for instance, believed that pretend play was a form of learning about the world, whereby children assimilate new rules and objects into their cognitive schema. In other words, one of the developmental functions of play is to help children learn about and master their environment. Additional Information: Piaget's Constructivist Theory

Answer 66

Correct Answer is: C The strongest single predictor of deviant levels of hostile behavior toward peers in the classroom is early disorganized/disoriented attachment status. Seventy-one percent of aggressive pre-schoolers were classified as disorganized in their attachment relationships in infancy according to Lyons-Ruth, Alpern, and Rapacholi (1993). Ainsworth (1978) described infants with a disorganized/disoriented attachment as "dazed, confused, and apprehensive." According to Ainsworth, securely attached babies are emotionally sensitive and responsive, anxious/resistant attached babies are anxious when their mother is present and distressed when she leaves, and anxious/avoidant attached babies are uninterested in their environment, show little distress when their mothers leave and avoid contact with her when she returns. Additional Information: Attachment Patterns

Answer 67

Correct Answer is: C Overregularization occurs when grammatical rules are overextended, such as the examples in the question- adding "s" to foot to form the plural or "ed" to run to form the past tense. Overregularization is common among three and four year olds who typically love rules and override some of the irregulars they learned when younger. Agrammaticism is the loss of the ability to combine words into correct sentences. Overextension occurs when a child uses a specific word to mean something more general, such as the word hat meaning anything put on the head or doggie for any animal. Additional Information: Language Errors

Answer 68

Correct Answer is: D Authoritative parents are very demanding but also warm and responsive to their children. Children raised by authoritative parents tend be more mature and have better coping skills, or resilience to life stressors, than children raised with other parenting styles. Additional Information: Parental Influences on Personality

Answer 69

Correct Answer is: B Studies looking at the outcomes for rejected and neglected children have found that rejection is more stable than neglect. For example, when rejected and neglected change schools, neglected children may experience improvements in their peer status, while rejected children continue to be rejected by the new peer group. Additional Information: Popularity with Peers

Answer 70

Correct Answer is: B According to Piaget, centration refers to a limitation of preoperational thought that leads a child to focus on one aspect of a situation and neglect others, often leading to illogical conclusions. characteristic of the formal operational stage and is the belief that others are as concerned with a subject's behavior as the subject is. This choice describes an imaginary audience (a term coined by David Elkind). characteristic of the preoperational stage and is an inability to consider another's point of view. This refers to egocentrism. characteristic of the concrete operational stage in which it is understood that two objects can remain equal according to a certain measure despite changes to their perceived form. This describes conservation. Additional Information: Preoperational Stage (Piaget)

Answer 71

Correct Answer is: A Based on data from 2002 Health and Retirement Study (HRS) and the findings of recent studies, retirees who are engaged in activities such as paid work, volunteering, or caregiving activities, have higher levels of subjective well-being than those who are unengaged - independent of age, sex, race, marital status, education, mental and physical health, and income. The likelihood of being very satisfied with retirement is highest for people who participate in more than one activity and, up to a certain point, increases with hours of engagement (Butrica & Schaner, 2005). It should be noted however that retirees who only provide caregiving are significantly less likely to be satisfied. Retirement studies also indicate that older people who participate in productive activities have better physical and mental health and lower mortality rates. (See: Butrica, B.A. & Schaner, S.G. (2005). "Satisfaction and Engagement in Retirement." Perspectives on Productive Aging. No. 2. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute. And: Luoh, M.C & Herzog, R.A. (2002). "Individual Consequences of Volunteer and Paid Work in Old Age: Health and Mortality." Journal of Health and Social Behavior 43(4): 459-509.)

Answer 72

Correct Answer is: A Most research has found that being raised by gay or lesbian parents does not increase the risk of negative developmental outcomes in children. For instance, a recent, comprehensive review of the literature found no support for the hypothesis that children of lesbians and children of heterosexual differ in terms of emotional health, interpersonal relations, sexual orientation, or gender development. The same review found that lesbian and heterosexual mothers do not differ significantly in terms of psychological adjustment or parenting skill. Additional Information: Gay and Lesbian Parents

Answer 73

Correct Answer is: C Longitudinal research by John M. Gottman and his colleagues investigated the interactions between married couples that predict divorce. The results indicated a combination of criticism, defensiveness, contempt and stonewalling, referred to as the "four horseman of the Apocalypse," is associated with a high risk for early divorce. This is considered to be the first seven years of marriage, which is when half of all divorces are known to occur. The suppression of affect, both positive and negative, is predictive of later divorce or the period during which the first child reaches 14 years of age. (See: Gottman, J.M. & Levenson, R.W. (2000). The Timing of Divorce: Predicting When a Couple Will Divorce Over a 14-Year Period. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 62, 737-745.)

Answer 74

Correct Answer is: B Underextension is the tendency to use a general word to mean one very specific thing (e.g., "baba" meaning one's own bottle or "cat" to describe a pet but not other cats). In contrast, overextension refers to children's tendency to use words to describe a broader class of objects than adults do (e.g., calling all animals "cat"). Source misattributions occur when individuals misremember the time, place, person, or circumstances involved with a memory. Misattribution, in this context, means ascribing words to a person who did not use them. Additional Information: Language Errors

Answer 75

Correct Answer is: C Piaget distinguished between heteronomous and autonomous stages in moral development. Heteronomous morality is characteristic of preschool children who believe that rules are absolute and unchangeable. A child in the autonomous stage views rules as more arbitrary and changeable by consensus. Additional Information: Piaget's Theory of Moral Development

Answer 76

Correct Answer is: A Research on the "synchrony effect" has established a relationship between circadian arousal, age and cognitive functioning. The optimal time of day for successful completion of certain cognitive tasks for young children (and individuals in late adulthood) is primarily morning. Research indicates that synchrony between individual preferences and the time of testing is a powerful effect and that only highly practiced responses are invariant across the day - all others are affected. It is noted that attentional regulation over both incoming information and outgoing responses are particularly vulnerable to time of day effects. Additional Information: Age and Intelligence

Answer 77

Correct Answer is: C You may have been able to answer this question through the process of elimination. Kohlberg, Erikson, and Ainsworth didn't distinguish between girls and boys in their theories. That leaves Gilligan who is best known for her work on moral development in girls but has also addressed other developmental issues. Additional Information: Gilligan's Relational Crisis

Answer 78

Correct Answer is: B Gilligan's research found that girls remain self-confident until about age 11 or 12, when they begin to become disconnected from themselves and others due to denial of their feelings. Additional Information: Gilligan's Relational Crisis

Answer 79

Correct Answer is: C The term "sleeper effect" has been used by Wallerstein and others to describe the finding that some children (especially girls) who seemed well-adjusted immediately after the divorce of their parents show significant problems in adolescence and early adulthood. Note that not all research has found evidence of this sleeper effect. Additional Information: Effects on Children (Divorce)

Answer 80

Correct Answer is: B paternal psychopathology. For this option to be correct, the answer should be maternal psychopathology. Rutter listed low socioeconomic status, severe marital discord, large family size, parental criminality, and placement of children outside the home, to be predictors of child psychopathology. Additional Information: Risk and Resilience

Answer 81

Correct Answer is: B Erik Erikson is best known for his psychosocial developmental model which consists of 8 stages spanning from birth to death. Each stage is characterized by a "crisis," the most famous of which, the "identity crisis", is experienced in adolescence during the Identity vs. Role Confusion Stage. During this stage many adolescents also take a time-out by withdrawing from their responsibilities and exploring alternative identities, which Erikson and Marcia referred to as a "moratorium". In fact, Erikson even encouraged adolescents to take such a moratorium. The only choice offered which is not associated with Erickson is the "ecological model" (correct answer) which was developed by Bronfenbrenner to describe the four environmental systems which influence development: the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem. Additional Information: Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development

Answer 82

Correct Answer is: A A phoneme is the smallest unit of language. Phonemes can be single letters or two letters combined which distinguish one word from another. For example, the letters "m" and "b" distinguish "met" from "bet." Thus, a phoneme can distinguish the meaning of different words, but by itself, does not carry meaning. the smallest unit of language which carries meaning A morpheme, on the other hand, is the smallest unit of language which carries meaning. For example, the word "reading" consists of two morphemes: "read" and "ing" (the "ing" indicates an active process). a whole word, which, when combined with gestures and intonation can express an entire thought. This is a description of a holophrase. another way of saying "call me" This choice is just plain silly. Additional Information: Components of Language

Answer 83

Correct Answer is: A May and Hasher (1998) referred to the beneficial effect of matching task demands and preferred time of day as the "synchrony effect." Acknowledging age and individual differences in arousal patterns, research has found there are large differences in circadian cycles between young and older adults. The optimal time of day for successful completion of certain cognitive tasks for young children and individuals in late adulthood is primarily morning. There appears to be a shift beginning about the age of 12 away from morningness towards the peak arousal and task performance levels for young adults to the evening. Eventually, the life-span trend for time of day preference appears to come full circle. The research shows that synchrony between individual preferences and the time of testing is a powerful effect and that only highly practiced responses are invariant across the day - all others are affected. It is noted that attentional regulation over both incoming information and outgoing responses are particularly vulnerable to time of day effects. (See: May, C. P., & Hasher, L. (1998). Synchrony effects in inhibitory control over thought and action. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 24(2), 363-379. See: Hasher, L., Goldstein D., & May, C.P. (in press). It's about time: Circadian rhythms, memory and aging. In C. Izawa & N. Ohta (Eds.), Human learning and memory: Advances in theory and application. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.) Additional Information: Age and Intelligence

Answer 84

Correct Answer is: A Head turning does not become an appropriate measure of perception in infants until 5 ½ months of age. Sucking* is often used as a measure of perceptual abilities for infants aged 1 to 4 months. Reaching* is used at 12 weeks or older, and heart rate* can be a useful measure at any age (* incorrect options). Additional Information: Sensation and Perception in Infancy

Answer 85

Correct Answer is: B Maslow's five basic needs, arranged in hierarchical order of importance, are physiological, safety, social, esteem and self-actualization. Additional Information: Maslow's Need Hierarchy

Answer 86

Correct Answer is: D This question is an example of EPPP questions that are mostly about reading comprehension. If you were able to stay awake through all the choices, you would have recognized Stage 2, 3, 5 and 6 as the correct selection. Additional Information: Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Answer 87

Correct Answer is: C The studies have generally found that maternal employment has beneficial effects on the cognitive development and academic achievement of children. There are some exceptions, however, and one of these is the degree to which the mother feels conflicted about work and family. Mothers who would rather be employed but who stay at home experience the most conflict, and this somehow affects the academic performance of their children. Additional Information: Maternal Employment

Answer 88

Correct Answer is: A For the exam, you want to have the names Thomas and Chess associated with infant temperament, which would have led you to the right answer to this question. Additional Information: Temperament

Answer 89

Correct Answer is: D The research has been pretty consistent in showing that the sexual preference of a parent is not correlated with a child's overall adjustment. Other factors are more important such as childrearing practices, which do not differ in any consistent way for lesbian and heterosexual mothers. Additional Information: Gay and Lesbian Parents

Answer 90

Correct Answer is: C Assimilation is when a child incorporates and interprets new information in terms of his or her existing schema. Additional Information: Piaget's Constructivist Theory (Introduction)

Answer 91

Correct Answer is: B Stranger anxiety first appears in infants between 8 and 10 months of age. The intensity of stranger anxiety typically peaks at about 18 months of age and then gradually declines during the end of the second year. Additional Information: Attachment Signs

Answer 92

Correct Answer is: C Constructivism refers to the notion that learning is not a matter of passive transmission of knowledge from one person to another. Rather, learners actively create and construct their own knowledge by way of interaction with their environment. According to Piaget, children learn through environmental interactions by adapting cognitive structures based on these interactions. This adaptation takes place via two specific processes: assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation involves assimilating new information into existing cognitive schema or structures. For example, if a child sees a zebra for the first time and calls it a horse, she would be assimilating new information into her cognitive representation of a horse as a rather large animal with four legs. Accommodation refers to the process of changing internal cognitive structures to increase their consistency with external reality. For example, when a child modifies a cognitive schema for a horse by learning it does not have stripes, and creates a new, different category for a zebra, she would be employing accommodation. Additional Information: Piaget's Constructivist Theory (Introduction)

Answer 93

Correct Answer is: A Malnutrition is obviously harmful at any age, but it has its most severe impact during periods when the brain is growing rapidly. The fastest periods of brain growth (including brain size spurts, and rapid increases in brain nerve cells and their connections) occur between mid-pregnancy and the third year of life. Effects can include mild to moderate mental retardation and deficits in behavioral areas such as activity and curiosity. Thus, of the choices listed, the perinatal period (between the fifth month of pregnancy and seven days after birth) is the best answer. Additional Information: Brain Development

Answer 94

Correct Answer is: A Through the intergenerational transmission process, parents' attachment patterns tend to create similar patterns in their children. The mother in this question appears to have what's known as a dismissing pattern of attachment. People with this pattern tend to devalue attachment relationships, and although they speak positively of their parents, when asked, they fail to provide specific examples to support their evaluations. Three-fourths of their children have an avoidant attachment pattern. he'll be ambivalent towards his mother This choice is characteristic of the resistant child -- most often resulting from a preoccupied parent he'll run to her and hug her This is seen in the secure child -- who typically has a secure parent. he'll appear dazed and confused This is characteristic of a child with a disoriented attachment -- which tends to develop from a parent with an unresolved attachment pattern. Additional Information: Attachment Patterns

Answer 95

Correct Answer is: D Piaget's developmental theory, also referred to as the theory of genetic epistemology, proposes individuals build cognitive structures in active and adaptive ways, such as through assimilation and accommodation. Dewey's theory proposes that learning is the result of our experiences and attempts to make sense of those experiences and emphasizes the experiential aspects of learning. Vygotsky's sociocultural theory, also known as the theory of socially mediated learning, states learning is first socially mediated, then self-mediated or individual. Gagne's approach is sometimes categorized as an information processing approach and focuses on instruction, learning outcomes (cognitive, affective, or psychomotor) and the conditions that facilitate each type of outcome. Additional Information: Piaget's Constructivist Theory (Introduction)

Answer 96

Correct Answer is: D Research has identified a number of factors associated with poorer adjustment in children whose parents divorce. For instance, rapid remarriage of one or both parents is predictive of poorer adjustment. The other suggestions are likely to be helpful (or at worst, benign): exposure to parental conflict, parental continuance of an unhappy marriage, and failure to allow children to establish a relationship with the noncustodial parent are all factors associated with poorer long-term adjustment in children of divorce. Additional Information: Effects on Children (Divorce)

Answer 97

Correct Answer is: B Bronfenbrenner's ecological model identifies interacting environmental systems, ranging from the most proximal to the most global, that impact development. The microsystem includes relations between an individual and the immediate environment, i.e., parents, siblings, caregivers, classmates, and teachers. The mesosystem* includes the connections between immediate settings, or aspects of the microsystem, such as school and home. The exosystem* involves social settings that do not directly contain the developing individual (i.e., parental workplace) but affect him/her. The macrosystem* includes the religious values, laws, cultural customs, and economic resources that affect activities and interactions of the inner layers of the individual life (* incorrect options). The chronosystem refers to the dynamic, changing nature of the individual's environment that occurs as a result of the passage of time. These may include changes related to the family (e.g., moving to a new area, birth of siblings) or the larger environmental context (e.g., an economic recession, growth or war).

Answer 98

Correct Answer is: C According to Elkind, adolescent egocentrism is evident through the personal fable (the belief that one is unique and invulnerable) and the imaginary audience (the belief that everyone is looking or feeling like one is 'on stage'), as described in the question. Psychological reactance occurs when an individual has been asked to do something and does the opposite. Additional Information: Formal Operational Stage (Piaget)

Answer 99

Correct Answer is: A Children develop at different rates, but twelve months is the age at which infants typically attempt their first step. Of course, in normal development, this can vary by a few months either way. The other choices describe typical developmental milestones of the age of 18 months. Additional Information: Motor Skills

Answer 100

Correct Answer is: A Piaget's theory of cognitive development identifies four developmental stages, roughly correlated with specific age ranges. As children progress through these stages, their methods of assimilating new information, accommodating existing cognitive structures to new information, and mentally representing information in general become more sophisticated. The fourth and final stage, formal operational thought, begins at about the age of 12, though not everyone fully completes this stage. It involves the ability to think abstractly, reason logically and draw conclusions from available information. One characteristic of formal operational thought is hypothetico-deductive reasoning, which involves the ability to generate multiple theories for a phenomenon and choose one theory over others based on reasoning and evidence. Additional Information: Formal Operational Stage (Piaget)

Answer 101

Correct Answer is: C Children generally begin to understand the concept of death between the ages of 7 and 9 years, and the concrete operational stage (Piaget) occurs between the ages of 7 and 12 years. The preoperational stage occurs between 2 and 7 years. Freud's phallic stage occurs from 3 to 6 years and the genital stage begins after puberty (which are the incorrect options).

Answer 102

Correct Answer is: D The child is displaying the ability to conserve, or understand that the fundamental properties of objects do not necessarily change just because their appearance changes. Conservation develops systematically during the concrete operational stage of cognitive development (ages 7-11). Additional Information: Concrete Operational Stage (Piaget)

Answer 103

Correct Answer is: C This question is based on Piaget's four stages of cognitive development that, in order, are sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. In the final stage, beginning at about the age of 11 or 12, individuals are able to think abstractly and hypothetically and therefore solve complex problems by imagining alternative solutions. Though not all aspects of the theory are universally accepted, it is generally agreed that cognitive abilities increase beginning in adolescence, and that these advancements include a greater ability to focus on oneself and one's place in the world. This change is often accompanied by a phenomenon known as adolescent egocentrism, whereby the increased focus on the self introduces cognitive distortions. Specifically, adolescent egocentrism is characterized by three distortions: the invincibility fable, the personal fable, and the imaginary audience. The invincibility fable is the belief that one is at lower risk from dangerous behavior as compared to others. Of the choices listed, this is the best explanation for this adolescent's belief that his reckless behavior will not lead to negative consequences. Other aspects of adolescent egocentrism include the personal fable, whereby individuals conceptualize their own lives as unique and heroic, and the imaginary audience, whereby adolescents assume that others are intensely interested in them. Additional Information: Formal Operational Stage (Piaget)

Answer 104

Correct Answer is: A Gender concept develops in a predictable sequence of stages during childhood. The first stage is known as "gender identity," which is the ability to categorize self and others as male or female. There is evidence that gender identity develops as early as 9 months or as late as 3 years, depending on how the researchers define it. The next stage, which develops by 4 years of age, is "gender stability," which is an understanding that one's gender does not change over time. The final stage is known as "gender constancy," which is characterized by an understanding that gender stays the same despite changes in appearance. Gender constancy is achieved by age 5 or 6.

Answer 105

Correct Answer is: C The disorganized/disoriented attachment pattern was added to Ainsworth's original three patterns by Mary Main, who found it to be a common pattern among children who had been mistreated by their caregivers. Additional Information: Attachment Patterns

Answer 106

Correct Answer is: B Research suggests that compared to their monolingual counterparts, bilingual children perform better on tests of cognitive flexibility, analytical reasoning, concept formation, and metalinguistic awareness. Additional Information: Bilingualism

Answer 107

Correct Answer is: C Gender segregation refers to children's preference for same-sex peer affiliations. Children as young as 3 years of age often establish and maintain same-gender friendships and play in groups composed primarily of children of their own gender. This phenomenon occurs in all cultures where children's social groups are large enough to allow choice and is typically observed from the preschool years through adolescence. Gender segregation appears to have important influences on children's development. Different peer group environments may lead to the development of different psychological preferences, skills, peer cultures and may also foster later gender differences in academic achievement, socializing and intimacy. These differences have been referred to as the two cultures theory which also proposes that distinctive features of girls' and boys' peer relationships confer particular developmental advantages but also vulnerabilities for each group (See: Rose & Rudolph, (2006) A Review of Sex Differences in Peer Relationship Processes: Potential Trade-Offs for the Emotional and Behavioral Development of Girls and Boys. Psychological Bulletin, v132 (1) p98-131.)

Answer 108

Correct Answer is: B Most of the cognitive development that occurs during the sensorimotor stage, according to Piaget, is the result of circular reactions - wherein a child learns to do something that produces an interesting or pleasurable experience which originally had happened by chance. Primary circular reactions* center around the baby's own body and involve simple motor actions like thumb sucking. Secondary circular reactions are actions involving an other person or object and are predominate from 4 to 8 months of age. Tertiary circular reactions* involve seeing what occurs when an original action is varied on an external object. This is predominate from 12 to 18 months of age. Piaget associated reflexes* with cognitive development from birth to 1 month of age (* incorrect options).

Answer 109

Correct Answer is: C The literature on aging and memory is confusing because different authors focus on different aspects of memory (recent versus remote, implicit versus explicit, etc.), and few make direct comparisons between the different aspects. Of the types of memory listed, though, problems in explicit (deliberate) memory have most consistently been linked to advancing age. In contrast, remote long-term memory, primary (short-term) memory, and semantic memory are not strongly affected by normal aging. Additional Information: Memory in Adulthood

Answer 110

Correct Answer is: A These parents should relax. Undoubtedly this is their first child. First words typically occur anywhere from 10 to 16 months of age. From 18 months children begin to create "language" several words that represent a complete thought (Mike Tomasello 1992, First Verbs: A Case Study of Early Grammatical Development, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). Additional Information: Sequence of Language Development

Answer 111

Correct Answer is: D Erikson's industry vs. inferiority stage occurs approximately between the ages of 6-11. Freud's latency stage occurs at about the same time. Additional Information: Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development

Answer 112

Correct Answer is: D Piaget identified four stages of cognitive development that he believed children moved through in an orderly and predictable fashion at specific ages. The first of these stages is the sensorimotor stage, which occurs between the ages of 0-24 months. During this stage, children attain a number of milestones in their cognitive development, one of which is the ability to recognize that objects are permanent figures that continue to exist once they are out of sight. This ability, called object permanence, typically occurs between the ages of 9-12 months. The onset of separation anxiety in infants is associated with their attainment of object permanence. The thinking is that once they obtain object permanence, babies realize that the attachment figure could be present when they are out of sight and therefore start objecting to the person's absence. Additional Information: Sensorimotor Stage (Piaget)

Answer 113

Correct Answer is: D J. A. Hall and A. G. Halberstadt's original research found gender-role identity to have a greater impact than biological sex on self-esteem in children and that androgyny (both masculine and feminine preferences and characteristics) is associated with the highest levels of self-esteem in both boys and girls (See: J. A. Hall & A. G. Halberstadt. Masculinity and femininity in children: Development of the Children's Personal Attributes Questionnaire, Psychology-Developmental Psychology, 1980, 16, 270-280]. Subsequent studies supported these findings and some have also found that masculinity, to a somewhat lesser degree, is associated with higher levels of self-esteem than femininity in both boys and girls. Additional Information: Gender Role Identity Development

Answer 114

Correct Answer is: D Informed by narrative and transformational learning approaches to identity development, Lisa Baumgartner's study (2001) on the incorporation of an HIV/AIDS diagnosis into one's identity identified a six-phase process including: diagnosis, post-diagnosis turning point, immersion, post-immersion turning point, integration and disclosure. The diagnosis phase involved the common reactions of shock, fear, denial, and relief. Post-diagnosis turning point was associated with social interaction or a "catalyst experience." In the immersion phase, people became immersed in the HIV/AIDS community; the HIV/AIDS identity was central and they educated others. Whereas the post-immersion turning point phase caused a revaluation of priorities. The integration phase was associated with decentralizing (internal experience of the HIV/AIDS identity) and balancing, such as engaging in activities unrelated to HIV/AIDS. Disclosure was woven throughout the process however initially individuals only told significant others, then made public disclosures, and finally made situational disclosures on a need-to-know basis. (See: Baumgartner, L. M. (2002) Living and Learning with HIV/AIDS: Transformational Tales Continued. Adult Education Quarterly, Vol. 53, No. 1, 44-59.)

Answer 115

Correct Answer is: D Research has shown that two general differences exist between the genders in interaction style among children: boys are more active and aggressive in their play than girls, and girls are more vocal and nurturant in their play than boys. These differences begin to emerge at about the age of three years old. Boys' social behavior is more likely to include physical and verbal aggression, insults, and teasing, whereas the behavior of girls is more likely to involve grooming, offering compliments to peers, and other signs of nurturance. Additionally, girls are more likely to spend time indoors and interact in smaller groups than boys. These differences are most apparent in same gender interactions, primarily because, until they are teenagers, boys and girls tend to play in same gender pairs and groups. Additional Information: Peer Relationships

Answer 116

Correct Answer is: D Kubler-Ross (1969) proposed five stages: denial, anger, bargaining, depression and acceptance (DABDA). Research indicates that these feelings don't necessarily occur in a fixed sequential order. Although the feeling of hope was not identified by Kubler-Ross, it is a common emotion in the terminally ill. Additional Information: Death and Dying

Answer 117

Correct Answer is: B Equifinality is a systems theory concept that holds a final state or given outcome may be reached from different initial conditions and in different ways. Multifinality* refers to the phenomenon in which similar initial conditions may lead to different outcomes. Homeostasis* is the tendency to maintain balance in the system. Entropy* is a tendency for the systems' outputs to decline when the inputs have remained the same (* incorrect options). In other words, as long as energy is moving in the cycle, the system is alive, however once more energy is expended than is being inputted, the system results in entropy, or begins to die.

Answer 118

Correct Answer is: C Different authors define fetal alcohol effects differently. All seem to agree that fetal alcohol effects are less severe than the symptoms of fetal alcohol syndrome, but are also largely irreversible. Some describe fetal alcohol effects as involving cognitive and behavioral symptoms but not the physical defects (e.g., facial abnormalities and growth retardation) that the full-scale syndrome involves. Additional Information: Alcohol (Teratogen)

Answer 119

Correct Answer is: B Children of one or more parents with depression are at a markedly higher risk for depression of their own, as well as for a variety of other disturbances, including Conduct Disorder, ADHD, Anxiety Disorders, Substance Abuse, poor social functioning, school problems, and (later in life) Bipolar Disorder. Additional Information: Childhood Depression

Answer 120

Correct Answer is: C Code switching (also known as language switching) occurs when a bilingual speaker changes languages during the course of a conversation. It seems to serve several purposes, including allowing the speaker to better express his/her feelings toward the listener. Additional Information: Code Switching

Answer 121

Correct Answer is: B Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development emphasized the role of social and cultural factors. He believed that learning occurs best through social interaction. His approach has influenced a teaching method known as "reciprocal teaching" in which the teacher and students take turns leading a dialogue. This approach encourages students to stretch beyond the role of simply answering questions. Computer-adaptive testing refers to a computer-administered exam which adapts the level of difficulty of subsequent test items based on the examinee's performance on previous items. The Montessori method emphasizes "hands-on" learning and has been criticized for lacking enough cooperative learning and small-group opportunities. Cognitive constructivism is based on Piaget's work which proposed that humans construct knowledge through their experiences with the world. Vygotsky's approach is similar to Piaget's, but because of his emphasis on the social context of learning, Vygotsky's theory is classified as social constructivism. Additional Information: Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory

Answer 122

Correct Answer is: C Most physical differences between boys and girls do not become prominent until puberty. Before puberty, boys and girls are about equal, for instance, in terms of speed and strength, implying that they should do about equally well in many sports. Additional Information: Gender Differences

Answer 123

Correct Answer is: B The effects of the timing of physical maturation are different for males and females. Boys seem to benefit from early maturation (early maturers are more popular and do better in school), while early-maturing girls experience a number of negative outcome (e.g., shyness, low self-esteem). Additional Information: Physical Maturation in Adolescence

Answer 124

Correct Answer is: B Sibling relationships in middle childhood are characterized by both conflict and closeness. Sibling rivalry is common during these years and is usually exacerbated by comparisons made between the siblings by parents and other adults. At the same time, pre-adolescent siblings typically serve as a source of companionship, assistance, and comfort for each other during difficult times. Additional Information: Sibling Relationships

Answer 125

Correct Answer is: B Research has shown that when a mother who is the custodial parent of children remarries, the children's contact with the noncustodial parent typically decreases gradually for two years following the divorce. This tendency is less pronounced with noncustodial mothers, who are almost twice as likely to maintain frequent contact with their children than noncustodial fathers. Contrary to this choice ("is correlated with the quality of the father-child relationship prior to the divorce"), the quality of the father-child relationship prior to the divorce is not predictive of the frequency of contact between noncustodial father and children afterward. Of course, these findings don't hold true in all cases, and variables that are correlated with frequency of noncustodial parental contact include geographical proximity, whether or not the noncustodial parent remarries, and obstacles to visitation implemented by the custodial parent. Additional Information: Effects on Parents

Answer 126

Correct Answer is: A Brain plasticity refers to the ability of the nervous system to adapt to different circumstances and to find new ways of learning. Plasticity is particularly useful for acquiring a new skill or recovering from a brain injury. Children, as you might expect, have greater plasticity than adults, although adults maintain some degree of plasticity throughout their lives. The greater plasticity in children is attributed to their brains not being fully developed. The human brain continues its development throughout childhood and into early adulthood, with significant increases in neural connections and myelination. However, adults, having more life experience, have more explicit and implicit memories. Adults also tend to have better metamemory, that is, greater knowledge of what one knows and how one's memory works, although this ability may decline among older adults.

Answer 127

Correct Answer is: A Red-green color blindness is a sex-linked recessive trait. That is, it is carried on the X chromosome. Since males have one X chromosome, donated by the mother, and one Y chromosome, donated by the father, a male child who receives one color blind gene from the mother will be color blind. However, because it is a recessive trait, females (XX) would need to receive the color blind gene from both parents in order to manifest color blindness - which is highly unlikely. This explains why 7% of American males are color blind, but only 0.4% of females are affected by this condition. Additional Information: Mechanisms of Genetic Inheritance

Answer 128

Correct Answer is: B Longitudinal studies indicate problem drug users, as young as 7 years old, exhibit a consistent pattern of alienation, impulsivity, and subjective distress, which often precedes drug use onset. Early experimentation with drugs is a predictor of problem drug use only in the presence of the syndrome described above and while peer pressure does underlie experimentation, it does not appear to be associated with problem drug use among adolescents. Lack of information is also not a significant contributor to problem drug use. Additional Information: Adolescent Drug Use

Answer 129

Correct Answer is: B During middle childhood sibling relationships are characterized by a combination of conflict and closeness. During this period siblings typically fight and experience friction, yet also report having greater warmth and companionship with each other. Additional Information: Sibling Relationships

Answer 130

Correct Answer is: B Rutter and others interested in developmental psychopathology have attempted to identify the factors that account for the continuities and discontinuities in child psychopathology. Rutter has focused primarily on variations in social relationships that act as high risk or protective factors. Additional Information: Risk and Resilience

Answer 131

Correct Answer is: C According to Freud, the only personality structure that has developed at birth is the id. The id operates according to the pleasure principle because it looks for ways of gratifying its needs immediately to avoid tension. "Reality" is associated with the ego, which doesn't develop until about six months of age. Freud suggested that the ego operates on the basis of the reality principle because it postpones satisfaction of the id's instincts until there is a suitable object available in reality. The "dynamic" principle refers to Freud's interest in understanding people in terms of the dynamic interactions (conflicts) that occur between the id, ego, and superego, and the "genetic" principle refers to his emphasis on the importance of a person's experiences during childhood. Additional Information: Psychic Structure (Classical Psychoanalysis)

Answer 132

Correct Answer is: D This is a difficult question because two of the organ systems listed in the answers -- the CNS and the heart -- are vulnerable to teratogens during the third week of prenatal development. However, the CNS is vulnerable from the beginning of the third week, while the heart becomes vulnerable in the middle of the third week, so the CNS is the best answer. Additional Information: Teratogens

Answer 133

Correct Answer is: A "Terminal drop" refers to findings indicating in the months before death, a substantial drop in all facets of intelligence occurs.

Answer 134

Correct Answer is: B According to Marcia's identity statuses, a commitment to an identity that is not the result of an identity crisis, but rather, the suggestions of a parent or other person is called identity foreclosure. Identity diffusion* describes young people who have not undergone an identity crisis nor have committed to an identity. Identity moratorium* occurs when a person is confused, having an identity crisis, and is actively exploring different options (* incorrect options). Additional Information: Adolescent Identity Crisis

Answer 135

Correct Answer is: B Bronfenbrenner's ecological model distinguishes between four interacting environmental levels that range from the most proximal to the most global. The microsystem is the individual's immediate environment and includes parents, siblings, caregivers, classmates, and teachers. Additional Information: Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Model

Answer 136

Correct Answer is: D An infant born before 37 week gestation period is considered premature. Greenburg and Cmic (1988) found that with a supportive environment and appropriate medical attention premature infants without significant abnormalities often catch up with their peers, in terms of social and cognitive language skills, by two or three years of age. There is no known relationship between prematurity and adult body weight. Additional Information: Prematurity

Answer 137

Correct Answer is: A Few, if any, experts believe that age-related declines in cognition and especially memory are solely related to artifacts of experience or testing. These declines have been observed again and again across different cultures and different tests. Certainly, experience and test error can account for some degree of observed decline, but the generally accepted conclusion is that these declines are real and reflect true neuropsychological changes. The other choices are true statements about age-related decline in cognition and memory. Additional Information: Age and Intelligence

Answer 138

Correct Answer is: D Adolescents who are successful in resolving the identity vs. identity confusion stage conflict, results in the virtue Erikson called "fidelity" . Fidelity refers to loyalty, although not blind loyalty, to society's standards. On the other hand, those who are unsuccessful in resolving the identity vs. identity confusion stage experience either the extreme of "fanaticism" or "repudiation." Fanaticism occurs when the person becomes overzealous in identification to a particular role to the point that he or she is intolerant of others. Repudiation is the other maladaptive tendency in which the adolescent compensates for a lack of identity by fusing with a group that eagerly provides its members with details of an identity: religious cults, military organizations, or hate groups. The adolescent repudiates his or her membership in the world of adults. Additional Information: Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development

Answer 139

Correct Answer is: D Other achievements of the concrete operational stage are transitivity, or the ability to mentally sort objects; and hierarchical classification--the ability to sort object into classes and subclasses based on similarities and differences among groups. Deferred imitation and object permanence are achievements of the sensorimotor stage. Deferred imitation is the ability to imitate an observed act at a later point in time. Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are not there. Finally, propositional thought is developed in the Formal Operational Stage. It is the ability to evaluate the logical validity of verbal assertions without having to use real-world circumstances. Additional Information: Concrete Operational Stage (Piaget)

Answer 140

Correct Answer is: A This is one of those "research results" questions in which you can find support for any answer, depending on whose research you read. However, of the choices listed, there is less overall support for the notion that age is significantly correlated with level of adjustment in chronically ill children. It has been found that, in some cases, chronically ill adolescents (in particular adolescent boys with diabetes) are more likely to display behavioral problems than younger children. However, age is not correlated with overall adjustment problems -- chronic illness, especially severe chronic illness, is likely to cause some kind of adjustment problem, whether it be behavioral acting-out or psychological distress. The other choices have all been shown to be correlated with adjustment in chronically ill children -- adjustment is better the higher the level of parental support, the lower the level of parental marital distress, and the lower the level of brain involvement in the child's illness. Additional Information: Chronic Illness in Childhood and Adolescence

Answer 141

Correct Answer is: C Around one year of age, children attempt to imitate their parents' language, learn that certain sounds can affect the behavior of others, and utter their first words. Additional Information: Sequence of Language Development

Answer 142

Correct Answer is: A Magical thinking is associated with the preoperational stage of cognitive development and is linked with egocentrism, or the inability to view the world from different vantage points. Additional Information: Preoperational Stage (Piaget)

Answer 143

Correct Answer is: B All of the responses are factors in Piaget's preoperational stage. Animistic thinking is believing that objects, like the tree with droopy leaves, have lifelike qualities such as thoughts and feelings. Magical thinking is believing one has control over objects or events. Egocentricity is believing that others experience the world in the same way and centration refers to the tendency to focus on one detail while neglecting others. Additional Information: Preoperational Stage (Piaget)

Answer 144

Correct Answer is: B Most of the studies on the long-term effects of early attachment have focused on secure attachment. However, there is some evidence that insecure and disorganized-disoriented attachment patterns are associated with negative outcomes. For example, the disorganized-disoriented pattern (which is associated with child abuse) predicts hostile behavior toward other children at age five. See K. Lyons-Ruth et al., Disorganized infant attachment classification and maternal psychosocial problems as predictors of hostile-aggressive behavior in the preschool classroom, Child Development, 1993, 64, 572-588. Additional Information: Attachment Patterns

Answer 145

Correct Answer is: C Studies indicate peers have the greatest influence over behaviors that are subjective (e.g., clothes and music), while parents have a greater influence than peers over other types of behavior (e.g., attitudes related to education, career, politics). Peers also have a significant influence when it comes to behaviors such as drinking, smoking, and drug use. Pressure from peers is resistible and research has shown middle and high school students are typically able to resist the pressure of their peers to act antisocially. Additional Information: Conformity to Peers

Answer 146

Correct Answer is: D Harlow studied monkeys separated from their mothers at birth and found that they preferred a terry cloth surrogate mother to a wire mother -- even when the wire mother provided food. He concluded that contact comfort, or the pleasant tactile sensation of a soft parent is more important to the development of attachment than feeding.

Answer 147

Correct Answer is: A Kohlberg's cognitive-developmental theory of gender concept development, grounded in Piagetian theory, asserts that children gradually progress through three stages. Gender identity, usually gained by age three, is the ability to correctly label own gender and identify others as boys/men and girls/women. Gender stability - knowledge, usually gained by four years of age, that reflects an understanding that one's gender remains the same throughout life. Gender constancy: realization, around age 5, 6 or 7 years, that one's gender stays the same even with superficial changes in appearance, behaviors, or desires.

Answer 148

Correct Answer is: A Patterson, Chamberlin and Reid [(1982), "A Comparative evaluation of a parent-training program" Behavior Therapy, 13(5) 638-650] proposed a coercive family interaction model. It hypothesized that children first learn aggressive behaviors from their parents. These parents also use harsh discipline and reward their children's aggressiveness with attention and approval. As a result, the aggressiveness of the parent-child interaction continues to escalate. Additional Information: Origins of Aggression

Answer 149

Correct Answer is: B Conventional moral judgment (stage 3) is best exemplified by the boy's volunteering being motivated by approval of others. A teenager volunteers at a shelter on weekends because he believes everyone has a responsibility to help the less fortunate or others in need. In this response, the boy's judgment is motivated by the morality of social contract (stage 5). Stage 5 begins the post-conventional level of moral development. A person in this stage seeks to uphold democratically-determined laws but recognizes that laws can be ignored or changed for a valid reason. A teenager refuses to join his friends at a party where alcohol is being served because he disapproves of activities that could result in harm to others. In this response, the boy is risking the disapproval of his friends by consideration of his higher principles which is characteristic of Stage 6 in which morality transcends legal standards. A teenager refuses to join his friends at a party where alcohol is being served because he fears being punished by his parents for consuming alcohol. In this response, the boy acts out of fear of punishment which is characteristic of stage 1. Additional Information: Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Answer 150

Correct Answer is: C Dewey's constructivist theory of learning emphasizes the experiential aspects of learning, proposing learning is the result of experiences and attempts to make sense of those experiences. In other words, each learner individually and socially constructs meaning or knowledge for themselves as he or she learns. Consequently, the focus is on the learner, not on the subject or lesson taught, and no knowledge is independent of the meaning attributed to or constructed by the learner. Vygotsky described learning as first social, then individual in his sociocultural theory, which is also known as the theory of socially mediated learning. Piaget suggests cognitive development occurs through adaptive and active ways such as assimilation and accommodation. His theory is also referred to as the theory of genetic epistemology. Gagne's information processing approach to learning emphasizes there are different types or levels of learning and that each requires different types of instruction. Focusing on learning outcomes (cognitive, affective, or psychomotor) and the conditions (internal and external) necessary for each type of learning outcome, Gagne identified five categories of learning: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes.

Answer 151

Correct Answer is: D Contrary to previous beliefs that children under the age of 3 years old are unable to recall events in their lives, more recent research has found early childhood memories to be more enduring. By the end of the first year of life, children have the capacity to recall at least some aspects of past events. [See P. J. Bauer, What do infants recall of their lives? Memory for specific events by one- to two-year-olds, American Psychologist, (1996), 51(1), 29-41]. Additional Information: Memory in Infancy and Childhood

Answer 152

Correct Answer is: C Baumrind (1991) describes the impact of parenting on development combines two dimensions of parenting, responsivity (warmth) and demandingness (control), to create four parenting styles: (1) Authoritative parents combine rational control and responsivity, set clear rules and high standards, use inductive techniques (i.e., praise, reasoning) to gain compliance and encourage independence. Their children are often assertive, self-confident, socially responsible, and achievement-oriented. (2) Authoritarian parents have a high degree of demandingness and low responsivity, impose absolute standards of conduct, emphasize obedience, and use power assertive techniques (i.e., physical punishment, threats, deprivation) to gain compliance. Their children tend to be irritable, aggressive, dependent, have a limited sense of responsibility, low levels of self-esteem and academic achievement. (3) Permissive parents are warm and caring however they make few demands and are nonpunitive. Their children are often impulsive, self-centered, easily frustrated, and low in achievement and independence. (4) Rejecting-neglecting parents have low levels of responsivity and demandingness and may be overtly hostile toward their children. Their children have low self-esteem and tend to be impulsive, moody, and aggressive. The characteristics of rejecting-neglecting parents are like those associated with juvenile delinquency - i.e., a lack of supervision of the children and inconsistent or harsh punishment are highly correlated with adolescent delinquency and involvement with antisocial friends.

Answer 153

Correct Answer is: A Social referencing refers to using the emotional response of others as a cue as to how to respond oneself. Infants begin to display social referencing at the age of about 6 months, when they are influenced by the mother's mere presence; by about the age of 10 months, they begin to reference their mother's faces. Social referencing in infants generally occurs in ambiguous situations, when they are presented with novel stimuli or unfamiliar situations. A number of studies have suggested that social referencing in infants reflects cognitive awareness of the meaning of emotional expressions, and, not simply imitation or contagion. Additional Information: Attachment Signs

Answer 154

Correct Answer is: C Patterson's model attributes aggressiveness in children to certain parent-child interactions. According to this model, children initially learn aggressive behavior from their parents who model aggression through their use of harsh discipline and ignore or reinforce their child's aggressiveness. In addition, these actions become increasingly coercive and eventually generalize to school. Additional Information: Origins of Aggression

Answer 155

Correct Answer is: A Elizabeth Kubler-Ross's model of grief and reaction to news of one's impending death, includes five sequential stages: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance. Not everybody moves through these stages in lock-step succession, and people can move back and forth between different reactions. However, the model describes a general progression. This choice ("No! Not me!") is a typical denial reaction, so of the choices listed, it is most likely to be a person's first reaction. "I hate everybody." This choice sounds like anger. "Just let me live until I can accomplish something great." This is most like bargaining. "My time is close now and it's all right." This exemplifies acceptance. Additional Information: Death and Dying

Answer 156

Correct Answer is: A In both children and adults, high levels of social support is one of the best predictors of positive psychological outcome following a traumatic event. Having skill in at least one activity is associated with self-efficacy beliefs, which are also associated with positive outcome following a trauma in both children and adults. Additional Information: Other Issues in Therapy Outcome Research

Answer 157

Correct Answer is: A Knowing that PKU is caused by two autosomal (i.e., not sex-linked) recessive genes would have helped you answer this question correctly. Because it is caused by recessive genes, a child would need to receive the PKU gene from both parents in order to develop the disease. Since both parents are heterozygous they each carry one dominant gene and one recessive gene for PKU, but do not have the disease themselves. Thus, the probability that the father will contribute the PKU gene is 50% and the probability that the mother will contribute the gene is also 50%. Fifty percent times 50% is 25% (0.5 x 0.5 = 0.25). People born with PKU lack the enzyme needed to digest the amino acid phenylalanine, which undigested causes severe brain damage. Most to all of the PKU symptoms can be prevented by early detection and adherence to a diet low in phenylalanine during the first 9 years of life. Additional Information: Gene-Linked Abnormalities

Answer 158

Correct Answer is: D A number of older studies showed that, in mixed gender classrooms, boys receive more attention from teachers than girls. More recent research has detected this difference but has found that it is much less dramatic than had been claimed in the past. According to analyses of results of some of the recent research, the finding is due to the fact that boys display a higher proportion of learning and behavior difficulties, rather than any gender bias on the part of teachers. Note that the results of research are not entirely in accord; the bulk of the research, however, does confirm the finding that boys receive more attention than girls. Additional Information: Teacher Behaviors

Answer 159

Correct Answer is: B The likelihood of a marriage ending in divorce varies based on age at marriage, income, education, length of marriage, race and other factors distinguished in the National Survey of Family Growth. The survey data indicates that rates of divorce are highest for women who marry at a younger age, have a lower level of education, had a child when she got married, have a lower income or live in a community with low family income, or have no religious affiliation. (See: Bramlett, M.D. & Mosher, W.D. (2002) Cohabitation, Marriage, Divorce, and Remarriage in the United States. National Center for Health Statistics. Vital Health Statistics, 23(22).)

Answer 160

Correct Answer is: B Homeostasis refers to the tendency for any system to react toward restoring the status quo in the event of any change. Homeostasis is automatically disturbed as individuals in a family grow into new developmental stages or "get better" after having had depressive or other symptoms. Therefore, when someone recovers, to restore a homeostatic balance, family members may either sabotage the recovered member's improvement or become symptomatic themselves. Thus, if the woman's depressive symptoms improve, the concept of homeostasis would predict that depressive symptoms might develop in her husband. Additional Information: Properties of a Family System

Answer 161

Correct Answer is: C The belief that language acquisition relies primarily on innate biological capacities is referred to as the nativist position. Of the theorists listed, only Chomsky is classified as a nativist. He proposed the existence of an innate "language acquisition device." Additional Information: Nativist Theories

Answer 162

Correct Answer is: B Until recently, it was believed that infants do not recall events that occur during their daily lives. This belief has been challenged by research showing that children as young as 11 months have accurate immediate recall for specific events and that, by 13 months, children have accurate delayed recall. Additional Information: Memory in Infancy and Childhood

Answer 163

Correct Answer is: D Your friend's child is exhibiting an insecure/avoidant attachment as described by Ainsworth. Ainsworth found that babies with this type of pattern often had mothers who were either very impatient and nonresponsive, or alternatively overstimulating. Neglect is most associated with a disorganized/disoriented attachment pattern. Additional Information: Attachment Patterns

Answer 164

Correct Answer is: B The studies have consistently shown that children of divorce do more poorly in school than children of intact families. In addition, these negative effects tend to be more pronounced for boys than for girls and for children who are older at the time of the divorce. Additional Information: Effects on Children (Divorce)

Answer 165

Correct Answer is: B Conventional morality is the second level of Kohlberg's three levels of moral reasoning. It is between pre-conventional morality, where the behaviors we view as moral are those that result in a reward or avoidance of punishment; and post-conventional morality, where we function according to our own conscience, no matter what the conventional wisdom is. The person at the conventional level supports the social order. He or she believes in that which is approved of by others or by societal standards is moral. Additional Information: Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Answer 166

Correct Answer is: D Researchers of a longitudinal study found that maternal deprivation in the first few years of life does not necessarily prevent children from developing strong attachments to their adopted parents - even when the adoption occurs as late as 4 to 6 years of age. attach more strongly if restored to a biological parent than if adopted by a non-biological parent Contrary to this option, the researchers found that a strong attachment was more likely to develop among adopted children than children who were restored to their biological parents. The children in this study did, however, show "overfriendliness" toward unfamiliar adults, had more difficulties with peers, and had fewer close relationships than non-institutionalized children [J. Hodges and B. Tizard, Social and family relationships of ex-institutionalized adolescents, Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry & Allied Disciplines, 30(1), 1989,77-97]. Additional Information: Attachment Signs

Answer 167

Correct Answer is: B Bem's gender schema theory states children develop schema about what is expected of them as girls or boys and then apply those schemas to their own behavior. Because it emphasizes both social, notably sociocultural factors, and cognitive processes, it is classified as a social-cognitive approach. Kagan's social learning theory* focuses on social factors role on the development of gender-role identity, yet focuses primarily on the impact of modeling and reinforcement. Kohlberg's cognitive-developmental theory* emphasizes the cognitive processes that underlie gender-role identity development. Resolution of the psychosexual crisis of the phallic stage of development is the emphasis of Freud's theory of gender-role identity* (* incorrect options). Additional Information: Gender Role Identity Development

Answer 168

Correct Answer is: D Evidence suggests that bilingual children perform better on tests of cognitive flexibility, divergent thinking, and metalinguistic awareness, than monolingual children. Findings on the academic performance of bilingual children are inconsistent and influenced by many factors such as the age of second language acquisition, community support, and academic services. Additional Information: Bilingualism

Answer 169

Correct Answer is: B The brain is the last organ to develop, which means that the last few months of prenatal development are most critical. Malnutrition during the final months can lead to irreversible damage due to the fact that it interferes with the development of new neurons and dendrites, which connect the neurons. Additional Information: Brain Development

Answer 170

Correct Answer is: D The prenatal period is divided into three phases: the germinal, embryonic, and fetal stages. The first and shortest stage of prenatal development is the germinal stage which takes place during the first two weeks following conception. This stage is characterized by methodical cell division and attachment to the wall of the uterus resulting in zygote development. The embryonic stage takes place two to eight weeks following fertilization. Significant growth occurs in the major organs and body systems at this point and this is when an embryo is most vulnerable to environmental influences, miscarriage (spontaneous abortion) due to serious birth defects or problems with uterus. The fetal, stage begins about eight weeks after conception and continues until birth (38 weeks + or -2). A developing fetus increases dramatically in size and weight while the organs become more differentiated and operational.

Answer 171

Correct Answer is: A Separation anxiety typically has its onset at 8 months of age, rises dramatically until the age of 18 months, and then gradually falls off until it becomes negligible between the ages of 24-36 months. Babies between the ages of 0-8 months do not typically protest when separated from their primary caretakers, even though a number of attachment behaviors develop during this time. Additional Information: Attachment Signs

Answer 172

Correct Answer is: D Research by experts in this field, such as Wallerstein, has revealed that developmental level is an important mediator of the effects of parental divorce on children. Apparently, older children are better able to understand what is happening during a divorce than younger children. As a result, they exhibit fewer negative effects at the time of the divorce itself. However, they often display delayed negative effects, such as painful memories and fears that they will have an unsuccessful marriage. Additional Information: Effects on Children (Divorce)

Answer 173

Correct Answer is: C Parental divorce can have a substantial negative impact on the school performance of children. There is also evidence that the negative effects of divorce on school performance are worse for boys than for girls and for older than younger children (Guidubaldi et al., 1983) Additional Information: Effects on Children (Divorce)

Answer 174

Correct Answer is: C Authoritative parenting has been linked to many positive outcomes for both children and adolescents including better academic performance. However, the effects of authoritative parenting seem to be moderated by race. Steinberg and his colleagues found that, even though African-American parents often adopt an authoritative style, the academic performance of their adolescents is influenced more by peers and, therefore, has less of an effect. These investigators also found that, overall, parents' involvement in their youngster's schooling is more important than their encouragement of academic excellence. See, for example, L. Steinberg et al., Impact of parenting practices on adolescent achievement: Authoritative parenting, school involvement, and encouragement to succeed, Child Development, 1992, 63, 1266-1281. Additional Information: Parental Influences on Personality

Answer 175

``` Correct Answer is: A Congenital cytomegalovirus (CMV), a type of herpes virus, is the second-most common cause of mental retardation after Down Syndrome and infection can be life-threatening during prenatal development or birth. At birth, approximately 10% of infants infected with CMV show symptoms and another 10-15% develop symptoms in the first few years of life. Common symptoms include some degree of mental retardation and hearing and visual impairments. Adults infected with CMV tend to be asymptomatic or have mild symptoms. ```

Answer 176

Correct Answer is: A Research has suggested that overall, boys receive more criticism than girls from both male and female teachers. Some research suggests that this pattern may be due mostly (if not completely) to the behavior of boys and girls in the classroom. For instance, some studies show that girls on the average are more successfully adjusted to the student role than boys; this is a primary reason why girls are less likely to be criticized. Boys, on the other hand, misbehave more often and more disruptively than girls in the classroom. Additional Information: Teacher Behaviors

Answer 177

Correct Answer is: D Self-recognition can be seen when a child develops the ability to recognize and distinguish the self in relation to the outside world through everyday interactions with the physical and social environment. The development of self-recognition has been studied mainly by examining infants' responses to their reflections in mirrors. The definitive test is whether or not the infant is capable of using the reflection to notice and respond to a mark on the face or head by touching the mark. Lewis and Brooks-Gunn (1979) found that infants respond to their reflections either by pointing to the mirror or by touching their faces as early as 15 months of age. Research indicates this response appears in some infants around 15 months of age and by a majority of infants by 24 months of age. (See: Lewis, M., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1979). Social cognition and the acquisition of self. New York: Plenum Press.) Additional Information: Self-Awareness in Infants and Toddlers

Answer 178

Correct Answer is: C D. G. Perry and K. Bussey (Social Development, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice-Hall, 1984) focus on family interaction factors in the development of aggressive behavior. They propose that aggression is related to parental rejection and lack of warmth and use of harsh forms of discipline. Additional Information: Origins of Aggression

Answer 179

Correct Answer is: D Piaget thought that around age 7 or 8 children begin to intentionally communicate false statements. Subsequent research suggest that children as young as age four lie intentionally, most often to avoid punishment or obtain a reward. (Ceci S.J., Leichtman M., and Putnick, M., 1992 Cognitive and Social Factors in Early Deception Hillsdale NJ Erlbaum). Additional Information: Piaget's Theory of Moral Development

Answer 180

Correct Answer is: C The research on this issue has generally found that open discussions with children about their illness are associated with the best psychosocial outcomes. Of course, parents are ultimately responsible for deciding what and when to tell children ("it is best to let the parents decide what and when to tell children about their illness"), but a professional familiar with the research can at least inform them of the findings to help them decide what to do. See D. J. Bearison, Pediatric psychology and children's medical problems, in W. Damon (ed.), Handbook of Child Psychology (Vol. 4), New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1998. Additional Information: Chronic Illness in Childhood and Adolescence

Answer 181

Correct Answer is: A Kohlberg distinguishes between three levels of moral development (preconventional, conventional, and postconventional), and each of these levels is further divided into two stages. The child described in this question is in the first stage of the conventional level, which is sometimes called the "good boy/good girl" stage.

Answer 182

Correct Answer is: C Harlow studied monkeys separated from their mothers at birth and found that they preferred a terry cloth surrogate mother to a wire mother - even when the wire mother provided food. He concluded that contact comfort, or the pleasant tactile sensation of a soft parent is more important to the development of attachment than feeding. Additional Information: Attachment Theories

Answer 183

Correct Answer is: C There are a variety of approaches to the treatment of aggression in children; the cognitive-behavioral approach is probably most common. In children who are older or developmentally advanced enough to understand, cognitive approaches tend to focus on helping the person accurately interpret external cues, so that he or she does not respond inappropriately with aggression. In younger children, the goal is often to identify the child's goals, the negative consequences of using aggression to meet those goals, and alternatives to aggression. The other choices are not as likely to be helpful: consistent discipline is good, but contrary to this choice ("punish the aggression consistently and harshly"), overly harsh discipline can serve to increase the child's aggression. Reinforcement for alternative behaviors is not a proven method of directly addressing aggression. And the notion that aggression is something that can be released through venting it on a safe target (or, by the way, watching it on TV) has not been supported -- apparently, engaging in aggressive behavior only leads to more of the same. Additional Information: Reducing Aggression

Answer 184

Correct Answer is: B This type of thinking is an example of the "personal fable" or the idea that one is unique and not subject to the natural laws that govern others (such as the concept of mortality). Elkind (1984) "All Grown Up and No Place to Go" Reading, MA. Addison-Wesley, wrote about the personal fable and also the "imaginary audience" which is the idea that one is always the center of other's attention. Additional Information: Formal Operational Stage (Piaget)

Answer 185

Correct Answer is: B Children's ethnic perspective-taking ability (EPTA) has been evaluated and described in several stages. In the first stage, which develops between 3 and 4 years, children first begin to describe ethnicity in terms of physical traits (e.g., skin color, clothes, physical features). In the next stage, which occurs between 5 and 9 years, they become able to accurately apply ethnic labels to themselves and others and they rely on other objective cues such as language and food preference, as well as physical appearance in ethnic labeling. In the next stage, from 7-12 years, children express a social perspective of ethnicity, including prejudice. And between 10 and 15 years, they begin to immerse themselves into their ethnic group (S.M. Quintana, V.C. Ybarra, P. Gonzalez-Doupe, & Y. DeBaessa, Cross-Cultural Evaluation of Ethnic Perspective-Taking Ability: An Exploratory Investigation With U.S. Latino and Guatemalan Ladino Children. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 2000, 6 (4), 334-351).

Answer 186

Correct Answer is: D Kohlberg's stage theory of moral development focuses on moral judgment and makes a distinction between moral judgment and moral action. Moral development is said to be enhanced by social experiences that produce cognitive conflict and provide the individual with an opportunity to take the perspective of others. Kohlberg proposes the higher the moral reasoning, the more likely moral action is and the greater consistency is between moral judgment and action because the higher stages increasingly employ more stable and general standards. (See: Kohlberg, L., & Candee, D. (1984). The relation of moral judgment to moral action. In W. Kurtines & J. L. Gewirtz (Eds.), Morality, moral behavior and moral development: Basic issues in theory and research, 52-73. New York: Wiley Interscience.) Additional Information: Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Answer 187

Correct Answer is: C This technique is what Vygotsky referred to as "scaffolding" and it is based on his idea that children receive support and teaching from their parents and other more experienced children. Additional Information: Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory

Answer 188

Correct Answer is: C Most theorists recognize three distinct stages in the development of gender concept. Although the precise timing of the stages varies somewhat, depending on how the constructs are measured, it is believed to develop in the following sequence: gender identity (between 9 mos and 3 years); gender stability (by 4 years), and gender constancy (4 to 7 years). Gender identity is the ability to label one's own sex and the sex of others. Gender stability is the awareness that sex identity is stable over time. Gender constancy is reached when the child realizes that sex identity stays the same despite changes in hairstyles, clothing, activities, or personality traits. [e.g. See: J. Szkrybalo, & D.N. Ruble "God Made Me a Girl": Sex-Category Constancy Judgments and Explanations Revisited, Psychology-Developmental Psychology, 1999, 35 (2), 392-402]. Additional Information: Gender Role Identity Development

Answer 189

Correct Answer is: B About ten percent of all children are socially inhibited. Typically, these children cling to their parents, are socially timid, and are scared of the unfamiliar. Reliable predictors of social inhibition have been detected in early infancy -- as early as the ages of 2-4 months. For instance, infants who display high levels of negative affect and motor activity in response to novel stimuli tend to display social inhibition later on in life. These and other findings suggest that inhibition and other personality characteristics related to basic temperament are stable and have a strong genetic basis. Additional Information: Social Facilitation and Social Inhibition

Answer 190

Correct Answer is: C Although Piaget and others have argued that young children are cognitively incapable of lying, the research has found that children as young as three lie for various reasons (e.g., to avoid punishment or embarrassment, to obtain rewards). Additional Information: Piaget's Theory of Moral Development

Answer 191

Correct Answer is: C Vygotsky stressed the importance of social and cultural impact on the developing child much more than Piaget did. These factors included the family and the child's milieu. Additional Information: Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory

Answer 192

Correct Answer is: B Children's ethnic perspective-taking ability (EPTA) has been evaluated and described in several stages. In the first stage, which develops between 3 and 4 years, children can begin to describe ethnicity in terms of physical traits (e.g. skin color, clothes, physical features); however, it is not until the next stage, which occurs between 5 and 9 years, can they accurately apply ethnic labels to themselves and others. In the following stage, from 7-12 years, children express a social perspective of ethnicity, including prejudice. And between 10 and 15 years they begin to immerse themselves into their ethnic group. [S.M. Quintana, V.C. Ybarra, P. Gonzalez-Doupe, & Y. DeBaessa, Cross-Cultural Evaluation of Ethnic Perspective-Taking Ability: An Exploratory Investigation With U.S. Latino and Guatemalan Ladino Children. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 2000, 6 (4), 334-351].

Answer 193

Correct Answer is: D Though studies on the effects of parental divorce on children have shown that it increases the risks for many types of problems, a commonly cited finding is that boys are more likely than girls to experience externalizing problems, such as aggression and other difficulties in peer relations, whereas girls are more likely than boys to experience internalizing problems, such as depression. Additional Information: Effects on Children (Divorce)

Answer 194

Correct Answer is: A According to the latest survey completed by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (who keep statistics on these types of things) of teenagers aged 12-17, alcohol was their drug of preference. Asked about their drug use in the previous month, 21% had consumed at least one alcoholic drink, 18.2% had smoked cigarettes and 8.3% had used marijuana. Additional Information: Adolescent Drug Use

Answer 195

Correct Answer is: C there is a wide variation in sexual activity depending on physical and emotional variables. This option is the more conservative and more appropriate answer since we don't know too much about the couple. If we knew more about why they sought help, we could make a more specific recommendation. Additional Information: Sexuality in Adulthood

Answer 196

Correct Answer is: D Although Kohlberg is probably better known as a theorist of moral development than Piaget, the latter had his own theory, which basically stressed that as children grow, they move from viewing rules as fixed dictates of authority to flexible instruments of human purposes that can be changed. The point of view of Kohlberg, Piaget, and other theorists with similar ideas is sometimes termed the cognitive-developmental point of view because, from the perspective of these theories, development in a number of areas is mainly a function of cognitive development. Both Kohlberg and Piaget believed that moral development occurs in an invariant sequence and is related to both cognitive development and peer interaction. However, neither Piaget nor Kohlberg believed that there are cultural differences in the early stages of moral development, though Kohlberg has noted that the nature and rate of moral development at its higher levels does differ across cultures. Additional Information: Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Answer 197

Correct Answer is: C In Kohlberg's model, Stage 5 begins the post-conventional level of moral development. A person in this stage seeks to uphold democratically-determined laws but recognizes that laws can be ignored or changed for a valid reason. "Autonomous morality" is a term used by Piaget denoting the stage when children recognize that rules are determined by agreement and are alterable. "Universal ethical principles" is more characteristic of Stage 6 in Kohlberg's model in which morality transcends legal standards. Additional Information: Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Answer 198

Correct Answer is: C Primary circular reactions are not associated with the preoperational stage but rather entail repetitions of pleasurable actions and are characteristic of babies between 1 and 4 months of age. Transduction* refers to reasoning involving by the tendency to move from one specific case to another without taking the general into account. Centration* involves an inability to focus on more than one aspect of a situation or object at a time and animism* refers to the belief that objects have thoughts, feelings, and other lifelike qualities (* incorrect options).

Answer 199

Correct Answer is: B Exposure to cocaine during prenatal development often causes oversensitivity to stimulation, excessive irritability, and retarded growth. These babies are easily agitated and difficult to soothe. Additional Information: Cocaine (Teratogen)

Answer 200

Correct Answer is: A For Vygotsky, language is originally and primarily social. Thus a child's language and cognitive processes are greatly influenced by his social relationships and culture. From these experiences the child formulates his language. This is in contrast to Piaget ("internal cognitive structures" and "schemas") who believed that universal internal cognitive structures or schema developed first within the child, and then were influenced by his surroundings. "Scaffolding" is Vygotsky's term for the assistance adults give to children to help them learn about the world. Additional Information: Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory

Answer 201

Correct Answer is: C The foreclosure stage in ethnic identity development is characterized by commitment to one's ethnicity without much exploration of what that means. Research on this issue has consistently found that minority adolescents are more likely than white adolescents to be in the foreclosure stage. During the identity achievement stage, the adolescent struggles with alternatives among potential personal choices, which leads to a commitment to a personal choice. Identity diffusion implies a lack of commitment regardless of whether there has been a crisis. Finally, the moratorium stage focuses on an ongoing crisis that as yet shows no clear commitment. Additional Information: Adolescent Identity Crisis

Answer 202

Correct Answer is: A Dr. Richard Ferber, along with other experts, recommend a progressive waiting period to help children fall asleep and stay asleep. The method, sometimes referred to as "Ferberizing" involves putting the baby to bed while he or she is still awake. If the child cries, parents are instructed to wait a predetermined interval -usually five minutes. At that time they are instructed to go in to check and comfort the child verbally, but without rocking, feeding, or picking up the child. After doing this, they are to leave the room. If the child cries again, they are to wait 10 minutes before providing the same response. After each successive time the interval is increased until the child falls asleep. be flexible regarding the child's natural sleep cycle Contrary to this choice, Ferber recommends sticking to a regular schedule; however, he does acknowledge that under certain circumstances, for instance, if the child is sick or you are traveling, you may need to be flexible regarding the schedule. Additional Information: Sleep in Infancy

Answer 203

Correct Answer is: D Research investigating outcomes of quality bilingual education programs shows that immigrant children in these programs learn English and subject matter as well as or better than immigrants in English-only programs. Additional Information: Bilingual Education

Answer 204

Correct Answer is: A Most research has found that girls have more difficulty adjusting to their mother's remarriage than do boys. This is particularly the case during childhood and early adolescence. Older adolescent males, on the other hand, often continue to have problems with the adjustment. Stepfathers have more frequent contact with their stepchildren than do stepmothers. The reverse of this choice is true; that is, stepmothers typically have more frequent contact with their stepchildren than do stepfathers, although these interactions are often abrasive. Stepparents most often utilize an authoritative parenting style. In contrast to this choice, stepparents have been found to rely heavily on authoritarian (rather than authoritative) parenting. Additional Information: Remarriage and Stepparents

Answer 205

Correct Answer is: D Bilateral otitis media means inflammation of the left and right middle ear. Middle ear infections in early childhood, especially severe infections, have been associated with the development of Learning Disorders later in childhood. As you might expect, hearing loss in children most often affects verbal comprehension. In a study of children 8- to 10-years-old who had a history of otitis media between birth and 3 ½ years of age, but have since been free of the disease, reading level was found to be more than a year below grade level and scores on the Verbal Comprehension factor for the WISC-R (now the WISC-IV) were significantly lower than controls (J. S. Kindig & H. C. Richards. Otitis media: Precursor of delayed reading. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 2000, 25(1), 15-18). Additional Information: Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fifth Edition (WISC-V)

Answer 206

Correct Answer is: D The tendency of babies to cry at the sound of another infant's cries is referred to as emotional contagion and is considered by researchers to be the first sign of empathy. Emotional contagion has been observed in infants as young as two days.

Answer 207

Correct Answer is: B Piaget proposed that cognitive development is the result of a combination of biological maturation and exposure to appropriate environmental stimuli. An implication of this assumption is that, even when a child is biologically ready for cognitive growth, it will not occur unless the child is also exposed to necessary environmental stimulation. Additional Information: Piaget's Constructivist Theory (Introduction)

Answer 208

``` Correct Answer is: B Receptive language (comprehension) precedes productive language throughout the stages of speech development. In sequence, the stages of speech development are: (1) Crying. (2) Cooing (baby utters vowel sounds when he or she is happy) and babbling (baby repeats simple vowel and consonant sounds). (3) Echolalia (baby imitates speech sounds without understanding their meaning) and expressive jargon (baby vocalizes sounds that resemble sentences, but have no meaning). (4) Holophrastic speech (baby says his or her first words and uses single words to express sentences or phrases). (5) Telegraphic speech (baby uses at least two words to form a sentence). (6) Rapid growth of vocabulary (primarily between the ages of 30 months and three years). (7) Use of grammatically correct sentences. (8) Development of metalinguistic awareness (child is able to reflect on language as a communication tool and to reflect on himself or herself as a language user). ```

Answer 209

Correct Answer is: A Treatment for diabetes and other chronic diseases requires compliance with a demanding treatment regimen of dietary restriction and medication administration. Research has demonstrated that adolescence is associated with poorer compliance with these regimens than childhood. For instance, one study showed that 16 to 19 year old diabetics, as compared to child diabetics, administered their injections, exercised, and checked their glucose levels less frequently. In adolescence, noncompliance with treatment is often related to a desire to be independent and to fit in with peers. Additional Information: Chronic Illness in Childhood and Adolescence

Answer 210

Correct Answer is: B According to Erikson, adolescents who are unsuccessful in resolving the identity vs. identity confusion stage experience either the extreme of "fanaticism" or "repudiation." Fanaticism occurs when the person becomes overzealous in identification to a particular role to the point that he or she is intolerant of others. Repudiation is the other maladaptive tendency in which the adolescent compensates for a lack of identity by fusing with a group that eagerly provides its members with details of an identity: religious cults, military organizations, or hate groups. The adolescent repudiates his or her membership in the world of adults. Successful resolution of the conflict, on the other hand, results in the virtue Erikson called "fidelity". Fidelity refers to loyalty, although not blind loyalty, to society's standards. Additional Information: Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development

Answer 211

Correct Answer is: D Infants' learning and cognitive development is promoted primarily through their own exploration of the environment around them. Meeting their physical needs helps ensure that they have the physical ability to explore the environment, and meeting their emotional needs helps ensure they have the security and confidence to do so. For this reason, this is the best answer ("ensure that the infant's physical and emotional needs are met"). Regarding this choice ("supply the infant with a daily problem solving task"), problem solving tasks certainly will help an infant develop cognitively, but the wording of this choice makes it a weak answer. The infant should not have to be "supplied" with a problem-solving task as each new stimulus she encounters in the environment basically functions as one. Moreover, the choice suggests that the infant would be presented with one task per day, but infants who have the opportunity, strength, and confidence to explore their environment are presented with much more than a "daily" opportunity to solve problems.

4- Developmental Psychology Flashcards

(235 cards)