7- Learning Theory and Behavior Theory

Question 1

In terms of the Atkinson and Shiffrin model of human memory, which of the following best accounts for the recency effect?
Select one:
A. better storage in long-term memory due to rehearsal.
B. the lack of decay of information from short-term memory at the time of testing.
C. better retention in the sensory register due to stimulus characteristics.
D. less forgetting due to a lack of proactive interference.

Answer 1

Correct Answer is: B
The Atkinson and Shiffrin Multi-store Model of human memory divides the structure of memory into three components: the sensory register, short-term memory, and long-term memory. The sensory register stores unprocessed sensory information for less than a second. This information may or may not get selected for transfer to short-term memory, which retains information for about 15-30 seconds and has a capacity of 5-9 information chunks. If properly attended to, information from short-term store may be transferred to long-term memory, which holds information on a lasting basis. The recency effect refers to the tendency, when recalling items in a list, to better remember those toward the end of the list. There is also a tendency, called the primacy effect, to better remember items toward the beginning of the list. Together, the primacy and recency effects are referred to as the serial position effect. Research supports the notion that the recency effect occurs because, at the time of testing, the information at the end of the list is still present in short-term memory. For instance, if subjects engage in a distracting task after they study a list, the recency effect will be much weaker or disappear entirely.
Additional Information: Multi-Store Model, Multicomponent Model of Working Memory

Question 2

A behavior therapist would likely view anxiety as the result of:
Select one:
A. classical conditioning, in which an aversive stimulus or negative life event served as an unconditioned stimulus.
B. classical conditioning, in which an aversive stimulus or negative life event served as a conditioned stimulus.
C. operant conditioning, in which a negative life event served as a punisher.
D. operant conditioning, in which the person is negatively reinforced for avoiding an anxiety-evoking stimulus.

Answer 2

Correct Answer is: A
This is a good question, because it requires you to have a good grasp of the classical conditioning paradigm as well as understand some of the differences between classical and operant conditioning. First, you might remember that classical conditioning is associated with the acquisition of involuntary responses, whereas operant conditioning is associated with voluntary responses.
classical conditioning, in which an aversive stimulus or negative life event served as an unconditioned stimulus.

classical conditioning, in which an aversive stimulus or negative life event served as a conditioned stimulus.

If you remembered this, you should have been able to narrow the choices down to these two options, since anxiety is an involuntary, uncontrollable response. According to the classical conditioning model of anxiety, a stimulus or event that naturally evokes anxiety (the unconditioned stimulus, or US) is paired with a previously neutral stimulus (the conditioned stimulus, CS) until the neutral stimulus comes to elicit anxiety. For example, being stuck in an elevator (the US), by being paired with elevators in general (the CS), might cause an elevator phobia.

operant conditioning, in which the person is negatively reinforced for avoiding an anxiety-evoking stimulus.

If you chose this response, you may have been thinking about avoidance conditioning, in which the avoidance response is negatively reinforced. However, in avoidance conditioning, the actual experience of anxiety is acquired through classical conditioning. Negative reinforcement is the mechanism that underlies the avoidance behavior, not the anxiety itself.

Additional Information: Techniques Based on Classical Extinction

Question 3

Which of the following is the best description of flooding?
Select one:
A. Exposure to a previously conditioned stimulus in the absence of a real aversive stimulus.
B. Gradual in-vivo exposure to the feared stimulus while increasing negative responses.
C. Imaginal exposure to a previously conditioned stimulus while conducting guided imagery.
D. Exposure to an aversive stimulus at its maximum intensity while the person is engaging in an undesirable act.

Answer 3

Correct Answer is: A
This question exemplifies how the exam can sometimes take a relatively easy concept and describe it in convoluted language, thereby making the question more difficult than it needs to be. In flooding, a person is exposed to a feared stimulus in order to extinguish the fear. The theory underlying the technique is that the feared stimulus was previously a conditioned stimulus paired with an unconditioned aversive stimulus that naturally produces fear.
Exposure to a previously conditioned stimulus in the absence of a real aversive stimulus.

In other words, this choice is one way to describe the technique.

Additional Information: Techniques Based on Classical Extinction

Question 4

Functional amnesia is characterized by:
Select one:
A. retrograde amnesia.
B. amnesia for autobiographical information.
C. impaired implicit memory.
D. deficits in primary memory.

Answer 4

Correct Answer is: B
Functional amnesia is characterized by retrograde amnesia, especially for personal (autobiographical) information, which helps distinguish it from organic amnesia, which usually includes some degree of both anterograde and retrograde amnesia and is not limited to personal information.
Additional Information: Amnesia

Question 5

Declarative memory is also known as:
Select one:
A. implicit memory
B. explicit memory
C. working memory
D. semantic memory

Answer 5

Correct Answer is: B
Declarative memory is a type of long-term memory which one can report or declare. Another term for declarative memory is “explicit memory” because one can clearly or explicitly recall the memory.
Implicit memories, on the other hand, are retrieved without conscious awareness. Implicit memories are also referred to as “procedural” memories as these consist mostly of automatic skills or procedures. Semantic memory, which is knowledge about language and facts, is usually considered to be one type of declarative memory, but it is not a synonym for declarative memory (* incorrect options). The other type of declarative memory is episodic memory, which is memory for events that have been personally experienced.
Additional Information: Types of Long-Term Memory, Multi-Store Model

Question 6

Slot machines provide reinforcement on a(n) \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ schedule.
Select one:
A. variable interval
B. variable ratio
C. fixed interval
D. fixed ratio

Answer 6

Correct Answer is: B
When playing the slot machines, reinforcement depends on the number of times you play, with that number varying from reinforcement to reinforcement. Sometimes you “win” after 8 plays, sometimes after 12, and so on. This is a variable ratio schedule.
Additional Information: Schedules of Reinforcement

Question 7

Extinction treatment paradigms are often limited by:
Select one:
A. improperly applied reinforcers.
B. accidental reinforcement.
C. client expectations.
D. practical constraints such as time.

Answer 7

Correct Answer is: B
In extinction interventions, you don’t want anything to accidentally reinforce the behavior. Let’s say you advised parents to ignore their child’s whining attention-seeking behavior, and the behavior reduced in intensity. Then, Grandma comes for a visit and when the child whines she gives him a cookie. This would be reinforcing, and so we’d be back to square zero and would have to do the extinction all over again. So, accidentally applied reinforcement often interrupts the extinction procedure.
Additional Information: Superstitious Behavior

Question 8

According to the reformulated learned helplessness model, the feeling of helplessness that underlies depression is caused by
Select one:
A. a negative attributional style.
B. the belief that no action will have an effect on the person’s situation.
C. attribution of negative events to internal, stable, and global causes.
D. behaviors that do not elicit reinforcement from the external environment.

Answer 8

Correct Answer is: C
Seligman’s original model of learned helplessness was based on experiments with dogs, who after being administered inescapable shock later failed to make any efforts to escape from shock when it was possible to do so. Seligman’s explanation was that the inescapable shock led to helplessness, or the feeling that no actions one can take will lead to a positive outcome. In other words, this choice applies more to the original model of learned helplessness: belief that no action will have an effect on the person’s situation.
The reformulated model focuses on attributions for negative events. According to the model, individuals seek causal explanations for negative events and these explanations can be described in terms of three dimensions: internal-external, stable-unstable, and global-specific. The reformulated model holds that helplessness and therefore depression is caused by internal (e.g., “I have no friends because I have no social skills” rather than “I’m alone right now because I just moved to a new town”), stable (“I’ve always had and will always have terrible social skills” as opposed to “I’ll eventually meet people once I get settled in”) and global (“I am no good relating to anybody” vs. “I’m uncomfortable with new unfamiliar people”) attributions for negative events.
Additional Information: Reformulated Learned Helplessness Model

Question 9

Expectations about one's ability to learn a new skill, accomplish a goal or create a particular outcome best defines which of the following?
Select one:
A. need for achievement
B. self-efficacy
C. locus of control
D. self-actualization

Answer 9

Correct Answer is: B
Bandura coined the term self-efficacy to describe a person’s beliefs or expectations regarding his/her ability to perform specific tasks or behaviors. High self-efficacy indicates one believes he/she has the skills or knowledge required to complete a particular task successfully, whereas low reflects a lack of expectation or belief in one’s abilities.
McClelland’s term “need for achievement” refers to an acquired characteristic that motivates individuals to attempt tasks wherein there is a moderate likelihood of successful performance. Rotter’s term “locus of control” refers to an individual’s beliefs about the factors that control outcomes for him/her and is further distinguished between an internal and external locus of control. Maslow’s self-actualization refers to the development or full use of one’s potential.
Additional Information: Need Theories of Work Motivation

Question 10

Individuals are most likely to remember which type of words in a test of working memory capacity?
Select one:
A. abstract
B. short
C. long
D. similar-sounding

Answer 10

Correct Answer is: B
Working memory is the ability to hold several facts or thoughts in memory temporarily while solving a problem or performing a task. In their theory of working memory, Baddley and Hitch (1974) noted memory span is greater for shorter (spoken duration) words than longer words and referred to this as the “word-length effect.” Working memory is an intermediary and active memory system in the information processing area of the brain and has been found to be most associated with the prefrontal cortex and cingulate cortex.
Additional Information: Multi-Store Model, Multicomponent Model of Working Memory

Question 11

After being exposed to a loud noise while playing with a rat, Watson's 11-month old Little Albert not only avoided the rat, but also avoided a rabbit, a dog, and cotton. This is an example of:
Select one:
A. higher-order conditioning
B. response generalization
C. aversive counterconditioning
D. stimulus generalization

Answer 11

Correct Answer is: D
Stimulus generalization occurs when one conditioned stimulus is generalized to other stimuli.
In higher-order conditioning* a CS, after being paired with a US, becomes reinforcing on its own and can be paired with a second CS. For example, once a bell is paired with food resulting in salivation, the bell can be paired with a light until the light alone elicits salivation. Response generalization* occurs when a CS elicits not only the CR but other responses similar to it. Aversive counterconditioning* uses classical conditioning to reduce or eliminate an undesirable behavior (* incorrect options).
Additional Information: Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination

Question 12

The key element in the most effective form of behavioral treatment for agoraphobia is
Select one:
A. exposure to the feared stimulus in vivo.
B. imaginal exposure to the feared stimulus.
C. relaxation training.
D. reinforcement for symptom reduction.

Answer 12

Correct Answer is: A
Agoraphobia is the fear of developing a symptom or having a panic attack in a situation in which there is no easy means of escape. As a result of this fear, the person may avoid public places and in severe cases, may remain confined to his home. Panic Disorder often accompanies Agoraphobia. Research suggests that in-vivo exposure is the most effective element in the behavioral treatment of Agoraphobia. The mechanism believed to underlie the effectiveness of exposure is extinction, or the repeated exposure of the person to a conditioned stimulus (that which came to elicit the fear through learning) without the unconditioned stimulus (that which naturally elicits the fear). There are a number of factors that affect the success of in-vivo exposure. For instance, gradual, therapist-assisted exposure is more effective than intense exposure over a short period of time. Also, treatment is more effective when the person has strong family relationships and one or more family member is involved in treatment.
Additional Information: Techniques Based on Classical Extinction

Question 13

In order to get an infant's attention, a photographer shakes a rattle, which results in the infant turning toward the rattle and smiling. After numerous uses of this technique, the infant stops responding. This is most likely due to:
Select one:
A. adaptation
B. extinction
C. habituation
D. satiation

Answer 13

Correct Answer is: C
Habituation is defined as a decrease in response strength due to repeated stimulation.
Satiation* occurs when a physiological need has been met, resulting in a decreased desire for that reinforcement. Extinction, in operant learning, involves eliminating reinforcement that previously followed a response ( incorrect options). In classical conditioning, extinction refers to the presentation of a CS without the US. Neither of these two models adequately apply to this question.
Additional Information: Techniques That Use Punishment

Question 14

The basic principle behind the Rescorla-Wagner model of learning is:
Select one:
A. the less unexpected or surprising the US, the more conditioning will occur.
B. the more unexpected or surprising the US, the less conditioning will occur.
C. surprise determines not only if conditioning occurs but how much conditioning occurs.
D. surprise determines if conditioning occurs but not how much conditioning occurs.

Answer 14

Correct Answer is: C
The Rescorla-Wagner model is built on the idea that learning depends on the surprisingness of the US. When the occurrence of the US is surprising - a larger amount of conditioning occurs and if the occurrence of the US is less surprising - a relatively smaller amount of conditioning occurs.

Question 15

In a study of memory, a researcher displays the letter "V" on a screen for a brief period of time. After removing the letter subjects are asked to recall what they saw. The researcher found that several of the subjects reported seeing the wrong letter. The most common incorrect letter reported was?
Select one:
A. A
B. B
C. W
D. X

Answer 15

Correct Answer is: B
Studies such as this one have found that although information is presented visually, the confusion during recall is for letters that sound alike, which supports the theory that information is usually stored acoustically in short-term memory [See R. Conrad, 1964, Acoustic confusions in immediate memory. British Journal of Psychology, 1964, 55, 76-84].
Additional Information: Multi-Store Model, Multicomponent Model of Working Memory

Question 16

A loss of memory for autobiographical information is referred to as:
Select one:
A. functional amnesia
B. anterograde amnesia
C. retrograde amnesia
D. malingering

Answer 16

Correct Answer is: A
Functional amnesia is a condition, caused by a psychological trauma, in which individuals are unable to remember significant events in their lives, i.e., autobiographical information.
Anterograde amnesia* is an impaired ability to form new permanent memories. Retrograde amnesia* is an inability to recall previous memories (i.e., for events that occurred prior to a head trauma), and is not necessarily for, or limited to, autobiographical information. Someone who is malingering* could feign memory loss for autobiographical memories; however, most cases of autobiographical memory loss are not due to malingering (* incorrect options).
Additional Information: Amnesia

Question 17

A student who is aware of the serial position effect, should pay more attention to:
Select one:
A. material studied at the beginning of a study session
B. material studied at the end of a study session
C. material studied during the middle of a study session
D. an older sibling’s advice

Answer 17

Correct Answer is: C
The serial position effect refers to the tendency to best recall the first (primacy effect) and last (recency effect) items studied. Thus, a student who is aware of this phenomenon should pay more attention to the material studied during the middle of a study session, since that material is most likely to be forgotten.
Additional Information: Serial Position Effect

Question 18

A person who has previously learned Spanish takes some French courses. When she tries to speak Spanish again, she mixes some French words in. This is an example of
Select one:
A. poor retrieval strategies.
B. cue based forgetting.
C. proactive inhibition.
D. retroactive interference.

Answer 18

Correct Answer is: D
Proactive and retroactive interference, or inhibition, are models of memory or learning failures that occur due to the interference of other learned information. In retroactive interference, more recently learned information or tasks interfere with previous learning and cause forgetting or impairment of learning of the latter. The question describes an example of retroactive interference: The more recently learned language interferes with memory for the previously learned one. Proactive interference is the reverse of retroactive interference. It occurs when previously learned information interferes with that which was more recently learned.
Additional Information: Interference Theory

Question 19

If a person learns a behavior through modeling coupled with external reinforcement, why, according to Bandura, would that behavior continue in the absence of a model or external reinforcement?
Select one:
A. The accomplishment of new behavioral skills can be reinforcing in itself.
B. The process of response generalization makes further modeling and reinforcement unnecessary.
C. The process of classical conditioning ensures that the behavior will continue, as long as antecedent stimulus conditions remain the same.
D. Individuals do not need any type of motivation to learn a new behavior; mere exposure to a model is sufficient.

Answer 19

Correct Answer is: A
According to Bandura, the effectiveness of modeling is mediated by four processes: attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. Motivation may but does not necessarily involve external reinforcement; it is also possible that behaviors learned through modeling can be internally or self-reinforcing (e.g., pride and satisfaction in accomplishment can operate as motivators).
Individuals do not need any type of motivation to learn a new behavior; mere exposure to a model is sufficient.

You might have learned that Bandura does not believe that reinforcement is necessary for a behavior to occur and, as a result, chosen this option. However, this is incorrect because mere exposure to a model is not sufficient for learning; the person must attend to the model, retain the model’s behavior, have the capability to reproduce the behavior, and be motivated to engage in the behavior.
Additional Information: Bandura’s Observational Learning

Question 20

In a study, subjects are asked to memorize a list of 10 unrelated words. The subjects are then asked to count backwards by 3’s from 99. At 5, 15, and 30 second intervals they are asked to recall the list of words. The reason the subjects are asked to count backwards is to:
Select one:
A. stimulate proactive interference
B. stimulate retrograde amnesia
C. enhance concentration
D. prevent subjects from rehearsing the list of words

Answer 20

Correct Answer is: D
Without the opportunity to rehearse newly learned information it cannot be retained for more than a very brief period. This study apparently used counting backwards as a way to prevent subjects from rehearsing the list of words in order to evaluate the duration of short-term memory.
stimulate proactive interference

Proactive interference (or inhibition) occurs when previous learning interferes with more recent learning.

stimulate retrograde amnesia

Retrograde amnesia is a failure to remember events that occurred prior to a trauma. Retrograde amnesia should not be confused with retroactive interference or inhibition – which occurs when new learning interferes with the recall of prior learning.

Additional Information: Interference Theory

Question 21

To reduce a client's fear of cats, a behavioral psychologist has the client imagine approaching a cat and then, when anxiety occurs, pair that image with deep muscle relaxation. This technique is known as:
Select one:
A. covert sensitization.
B. guided imagery.
C. implosive therapy.
D. reciprocal inhibition.

Answer 21

Correct Answer is: D
You may have been looking for counterconditioning or systematic desensitization as the correct response. Both involve reducing anxiety by pairing it with relaxation or other incompatible response. This technique was originally described by Wolpe, who referred to it as reciprocal inhibition.
Additional Information: Systematic Desensitization

Question 22

A group of undergraduate students learn a list of new material. Half of the students then spend the next 8 hours awake while the other half sleep before being tested on the material. Which of the following results would most likely be expected?
Select one:
A. the students that stay awake will remember more because they will have more opportunity for post event rehearsal
B. the students that sleep will remember more because they will experience less retroactive interference.
C. the students that sleep will remember more because they have less opportunity for memory decay
D. the groups will perform similarly because the retention interval is the same for both.

Answer 22

Correct Answer is: B
Understanding what retroactive and proactive interference (or inhibition) are would help you answer this question. Retroactive interference occurs when a person’s ability to recall X is difficult because of interference by something learned after X. In other words, new learning interferes with the recall of prior learning. Additionally, the longer the period of time between learning X and being tested on it, the greater the opportunity for retroactive interference. Proactive interference occurs when the ability to recall X is impaired by previously learned material. Proactive interference can occur regardless of how long the interval is between learning X and recalling it. Finally, retroactive and proactive interference are most likely to be a problem for information that is not inherently meaningful, which would be the case for a set of unrelated words.

Question 23

A candidate for the psychology licensing exam wants to maximize his long-term memory of all of the study materials. The most effective learning strategy would be to use:
Select one:
A. spaced practice
B. massed practice
C. elaborative rehearsal
D. maintenance rehearsal

Answer 23

Correct Answer is: C
Spaced practice* refers to study sessions which are distributed over time, and is generally more effective for retention than massed practice, which is more commonly known as “cramming”. However, elaborative rehearsal, in which a person thinks about the meaning of new information and its relation to information already in memory, results in deeper learning and is considered superior to all forms of “mindless” repetition. Maintenance rehearsal is another term for rote repetition (* incorrect options).
Additional Information: Rehearsal

Question 24

The tension-reduction hypothesis proposes that alcohol abuse is due to the effects of:
Select one:
A. tolerance
B. withdrawal
C. habituation
D. conditioning

Answer 24

Correct Answer is: D
Conger’s (1956) tension-reduction hypothesis proposed that alcohol consumption reduces stress, which reinforces alcohol use, resulting in a greater likelihood of alcohol consumption in times of stress. Thus, the basis of the theory is operant conditioning [J. Conger, Reinforcement theory and the dynamics of alcoholism, Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 1956, 17, 296-305]. Subsequent research findings on Conger’s theory have been mixed, leading some researchers to conclude that the theory is overly simplistic.
Additional Information: Etiology (Substance Use Disorders)

Question 25

``` A bell is repeatedly paired with food resulting in a conditioned response. The bell is then paired with a light until it too produces the conditioned response. If the light is then presented without food this would be an example of: Select one: A. Blocking B. Classical extinction C. Higher-order conditioning D. Discriminative stimulus ```

Answer 25

Correct Answer is: B This question attempted to distract you with a description of higher-order conditioning. However, the key to the question was the last sentence, which described the more basic procedure of classical extinction. Additional Information: Techniques Based on Classical Extinction

Question 26

``` A child's ability to maintain a mental picture of a toy even after it is removed is called: Select one: A. flashbulb memory B. method of loci C. eidetic imagery D. sustained attention ```

Answer 26

Correct Answer is: C Eidetic imagery, or photographic memory, is associated with improved ability to memorize information and tends to be more common in children. Another strategy for improving recall using visual images, is the method of loci*, which involves associating items to be remembered with mental images of places or specific items. This is useful for recalling information in a specific order. Flashbulb memory* describes vivid, detailed memories of emotionally-charged or surprising events. Sustained attention* is the ability to direct and focus cognitive activity on specific stimuli over an extended period (* incorrect options). Additional Information: Mnemonic Devices

Question 27

To improve the accuracy of the eyewitness testimony of a six-year-old child, it is advisable to Select one: A. practice with the child before the testimony is given. B. ask yes-no questions. C. ask the same question more than once. D. ask open-ended questions.

Answer 27

Correct Answer is: D Research with children aged four to eight has shown that they have reliable memories and can give credible eyewitness testimony, but the questioner needs to be knowledgeable about children and ask the right types of questions. For instance, open ended questions, as opposed to yes-no questions are more effective, because the latter tend to function as cues or suggestions regarding how children are expected to answer. Also, repeating the same question can compromise the accuracy of children's testimony, because it could suggest to the child that her previous answer was unacceptable.

Question 28

``` When undertaking token economies with seriously disturbed individuals in mental institutions, one of the major problems with the program's efficacy has to do with Select one: A. generalization of behaviors. B. choice of reinforcers. C. exchange ratio. D. reinforcement value. ```

Answer 28

Correct Answer is: A Use of a token economy involves administering secondary reinforcers such as a token each time the person engages in a desired behavior, or taking away a reinforcer when a person engages in an undesired behavior. The tokens can then be exchanged for primary reinforcers such as food or desired activities. Token economies are commonly used in institutional settings. A problem with them is that behaviors learned often fail to generalize to the real world, since tokens are not available in the real world every time we do something right. Additional Information: Token Economy

Question 29

``` A study participant is given a list of unrelated words to remember and then performs a distracting task for 10 seconds prior to recalling the listed words in any order. In this situation, the words ________________ of the list will be recalled the poorest. Select one: A. in the beginning B. in the beginning and middle C. in the middle D. at the end ```

Answer 29

Correct Answer is: C This question is asking about the serial position effect, which predicts that the poorest recall will be for information in the middle of a list. When there is no delay between exposure to the list and recall, words at the beginning and end of a list are recalled the best. However when there is a brief delay, words at the beginning of the list are recalled best. The serial position effect is believed to occur because material presented at the beginning is transferred to long-term memory, while information at the end is still in short-term memory. Whereas, information in the middle can be affected by interference from information that came before and afterwards, preventing storage in short- or long-term memory. Additional Information: Serial Position Effect

Question 30

In the classical conditioning paradigm, backward conditioning has been found to be: Select one: A. ineffective. B. moderately effective. C. more effective than simultaneous conditioning. D. more effective than delayed conditioning.

Answer 30

Correct Answer is: A Backward conditioning occurs when the UCS precedes the CS. Think of it as giving Spot the food and then sounding the buzzer. What would you expect? Do you really think that Spot would pay any attention to the buzzer once he had his Alpo? Hardly. He's probably too busy gulping down his chopped liver to have any attention channels available to perceive your experimental buzzer. So, the answer must be that backward conditioning has no true effect. For classical conditioning to be effective, the CS must precede the UCS. Then, after a sufficient number of pairings, the response can be elicited by the CS only. Additional Information: Factors That Affect the Effectiveness of Classical Conditioning

Question 31

``` The behavioral technique known as flooding is based on the theoretical principle of Select one: A. reciprocal inhibition. B. covert desensitization. C. classical extinction. D. negative reinforcement. ```

Answer 31

Correct Answer is: C In flooding, the patient is exposed to a feared stimulus. The technique is based on the principle of classical extinction, which involves repeatedly presenting a conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus. The idea is that the fear developed through classical conditioning, or a pairing of a conditioned stimulus (the feared stimulus) and an unconditioned stimulus (a stimulus that naturally causes fear). For instance, a fear of dogs might have been developed through a pairing of a dog (the conditioned stimulus) and a frightening event associated with a dog, such as a dog bite (the unconditioned stimulus). Classical extinction involves "unpairing" the conditioned and the unconditioned stimulus -- for instance, repeatedly exposing the person to dogs that don't bite. Additional Information: Techniques Based on Classical Extinction

Question 32

``` Normal aging is most likely to negatively affect: Select one: A. semantic memory B. episodic memory C. remote long-term memory D. crystalized intelligence ```

Answer 32

Correct Answer is: B Normal aging has been found to most affect episodic memory which contains memory for specific events including one's autobiography. Semantic memory* and remote long-term memory* are not affected by normal aging. Cystalized intelligence*, the ability to recall and use learned information, remains stable or may increase during mid-adult years (* incorrect options). In contrast, fluid intelligence, the ability to solve problems, form concepts, and see complex relationships, decreases with advancing age.

Question 33

``` The concept of "identical elements" is most applicable to: Select one: A. personnel selection B. employee training C. job analysis D. Equity Theory ```

Answer 33

Correct Answer is: B Identical elements is a concept based on the work of learning theorists Thorndike and Woodworth in 1901. It refers to the notion that training is best transferred over to situations which are similar to, or which have "identical elements" with, the training environment. Research has confirmed that identical elements improves transfer of training for both verbal and motor tasks. Additional Information: Edward Thorndike

Question 34

``` Behavioral assessments are useful for determining behavioral: Select one: A. contingencies B. consequences C. constraints D. interventions ```

Answer 34

Correct Answer is: A A behavioral assessment identifies "contingencies," which is a term for the antecedents of and consequences that maintain the behavior one is planning to alter. While a behavioral assessment may be undertaken to determine the best behavioral treatment, it may also be done for research purposes with no goal of offering treatment, or to see if a previous treatment was effective. Behavioral contingencies is more inclusive than "consequences" or "interventions", and therefore the correct answer. Additional Information: Techniques That Combine Reinforcement and Punishment

Question 35

``` A heuristic strategy that makes judgments only on the obvious characteristics of the problem, not requiring additional information and solves the problem based on the initial facts presented is: Select one: A. working backward. B. representativeness. C. means-end analysis. D. availability. ```

Answer 35

Correct Answer is: B Heuristics represent a "best guess" strategy to solving problems. They can involve a systematic evaluation of the problem or represent cognitive short-cuts for problem solving. While a solution is not guaranteed and errors can occur, heuristics can provide a solution in less time than algorithms. working backward. The working backward heuristic, commonly used in systems of formal logic, is a strategy that finds a solution by literally using the end point to suggest connections to the starting point. means-end analysis. The means-end analysis divides a problem into a series of sub-problems, with solution of the sub-problems then leading to a solution to the entire problem. availability. The availability heuristic uses information easily remembered or observed and solutions are based on the most recent information that can be brought to mind. Additional Information: Heuristics

Question 36

``` Which of the following is an application of negative punishment? Select one: A. D.R.O. B. overcorrection C. Premack Principle D. time-out ```

Answer 36

Correct Answer is: D Negative punishment is used to decrease a behavior by taking away a stimulus. In time-out, undesirable behaviors are reduced by taking away opportunities for positive reinforcement for a specified period of time. Additional Information: Reinforcement and Punishment

Question 37

``` A behavioral treatment that involves manipulating environmental cues and one's responses to them is known as Select one: A. stimulus control. B. stimulus discrimination. C. response contingency. D. cue contingency. ```

Answer 37

Correct Answer is: A Stimulus control involves manipulating cues, or stimuli in the environment that, when present, increase the probability of a particular response. It can involve reducing the strength of a cue that triggers a behavior targeted for elimination, or increasing the strength of one that triggers a desired behavior. For example, stimulus control in the treatment of an addictive or compulsive behavior such as substance use or overeating might involve assignments that reduce exposure to cues that trigger the behavior, have the person delay her response to these cues, and increase exposure to cues that trigger alternative behaviors. Stimulus control is also effective in treating insomnia; in this case, the person is taught to avoid cues associated with sleeplessness (e.g., by getting out of bed if unable to fall asleep within ten minutes), and increasing the ritualization of sleep behaviors in order to strengthen cues associated with sleep. stimulus discrimination. Regarding this choice, it is true that stimulus control is based on the principle of stimulus discrimination, whereby stimuli that have been associated with positive reinforcement for a particular behavior increase the probability that a behavior will occur in their presence. But the therapeutic technique itself is called stimulus control. Additional Information: Stimulus Control, Stimulus Discrimination and Generalization

Question 38

The basic requirements of a token economy are: Select one: A. stimulus sensitization, choice of tokens, rate of exchange. B. target behaviors, choice of reinforcers, rate of exchange. C. goal setting, staff cooperation, choice of reinforcers. D. target behaviors, choice of tokens, primary reinforcers.

Answer 38

Correct Answer is: B To institute a token economy program, you need to know the behaviors you want to change (the target behaviors). You also need to know what is reinforcing for the client (choice of reinforcer). For a hospitalized schizophrenic, it might be walking around; for a child, it might be a candy treat. You also need to know the relationship between token and the reinforcer (rate of exchange); that is, how many tokens will purchase the reinforcer. Additional Information: Token Economy

Question 39

``` A woman whose husband tells her that a woman he knows at work is not bad looking replies "you think I'm ugly." From the perspective of cognitive therapy, this statement can be labeled as Select one: A. a selective abstraction. B. a personalization C. an overgeneralization D. dichotomous thinking ```

Answer 39

Correct Answer is: B Aaron Beck, the founder of cognitive therapy, identified a number of cognitive distortions, or errors in logic and interpretation that contribute to negative automatic thoughts and therefore to depression. One of these, personalization, involves relating external events to oneself even when there is no logical basis to do so. In this case, the woman is relating the husband's comments about someone else to herself when there appears to be no logical reason to do so. Therefore, personalization is the best choice here. Regarding the other choices, selective abstraction occurs when one detail is taken out of context and used to draw a conclusion while ignoring other more salient features of a situation. Overgeneralization refers to drawing a general rule or conclusion based on one or a few isolated cases and applying the concept to other unrelated situations. And dichotomous thinking involves categorizing all experiences into one of two opposite categories (e.g., good-bad, competent-incompetent). Additional Information: Cognitive Distortions (Beck)

Question 40

Bandura's research looking at the impact of punishing a model for acting aggressively on male and female observers showed that Select one: A. when the model is punished, male and female children are more likely to act aggressively than when the model is rewarded. B. when the model is punished, performance (but not learning) of aggressive behaviors is reduced. C. when the model is punished, learning and performance of aggressive behaviors are both reduced. D. when the model is punished, male and female children are less likely to agree that aggressiveness is acceptable.

Answer 40

Correct Answer is: B In his work on observational learning, Bandura found evidence for his theory that learning and performance are separate phenomena and that learning can occur without reinforcement. For example, in the study described in this question, children learned aggressive responses by watching an aggressive model (even when the model was punished) and, consequently, were able to imitate the aggressive behavior when told they would be rewarded for doing so. Interestingly, boys (but not girls) who were rewarded for imitating the aggressive model were more likely to do so when the model had been punished than when the model had been rewarded. Additional Information: Bandura's Observational Learning

Question 41

The goal of psychology, for Watson, was to: Select one: A. predict and control behavior B. discover the elements of thought C. discover the mind-body connection D. demonstrate how similar humans and nonhuman animals are to one another.

Answer 41

Correct Answer is: A Watson's theory of behaviorism (also referred to as learning perspective) is based on the assertion everything organisms do, think and feel are behaviors. Watson's view on behavior was that it was purely elicited and believed that individuals did not experience emotions but rather they were responses to other stimuli. Watson's goal for classical behaviorism or classical conditioning was to create a more objective science and from this behavior could be predicted and controlled. Additional Information: Watson

Question 42

If a depressed person is ignored by one of his colleagues at work, he is least likely to explain the colleague's behavior with which of following statements? Select one: A. It's like I'm invisible around here. B. He is very busy today. C. This company has a culture of rudeness. D. What a jerk!

Answer 42

Correct Answer is: B This question refers to the Hopelessness Theory of Depression (HTD) and research investigating it. According to this theory, individuals with a depressogenic attribution style are more vulnerable to depression that others. This style involves making internal, stable, and global attributions for, or causal explanations of, negative events, as opposed to external, unstable, and specific attributions. "It's like I'm invisible around here." This choice represents an internal attribution. "He is very busy today." Only this choice attributes the colleagues' behavior to an external (the colleague not the person), unstable (he is busy) and specific (today) cause. Research does show that depressed individuals tend to explain negative events in terms of internal, stable, and global causes, though it has not been established that this truly represents a cognitive tendency which causes depression. "This company has a culture of rudeness." This represents a global attribution. "What a jerk!" This represents a stable attribution. Additional Information: Reformulated Learned Helplessness Model

Question 43

``` All of the following therapies are considered part of the "third wave" of behavior therapy except: Select one: A. acceptance and commitment therapy B. mindfulness training C. dialectical behavior therapy D. systematic desensitization ```

Answer 43

Correct Answer is: D The first wave of behavior therapy refers to traditional behavior therapy, which employs the learning principle of conditioning to replace harmful behaviors with constructive ones. The second wave of behavior therapy, cognitive therapy, is used to change the thoughts that cause and perpetuate problem behaviors. While the first and second wave therapies are focused mainly on immediate problems, the third wave of behavior therapy, emphasizes the broad constructs of values, spirituality, relationships, and mindfulness. Traditionally non-clinical treatment techniques such as acceptance, mindfulness, cognitive defusion, dialectics, values, spirituality, and relationship development are being explored and the definition, causes and diagnosis of psychological problems and treatment goals of psychotherapy are re-examined. Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) is part of the third wave in behavior therapy. ACT therapists initially encourage a client to accept the circumstances of his/her life "as is" without judgment and then guides him/her in a progression of identifying a set of his/her core values. Once these values are identified, the focus of therapy is making short and long term commitments to act in ways that affirm and expand these values. In general, diagnosing and treating a specific mental illness is set aside as, in therapy, healing comes as a result of living a value-driven life rather than controlling or eradicating a particular set of symptoms. (See: Hayes, S., Masuda, & De Mey (2003). Acceptance and commitment therapy, relational frame theory, and the third wave of behavioral and cognitive therapies. Behavior Therapy. Vol 35, Issue 4, 639-665.) Additional Information: Systematic Desensitization

Question 44

``` A study shows that individuals with left-leaning or socialist political outlooks adopt more positive viewpoints towards large corporations after accepting a low paying job in one. This study provides evidence for Select one: A. Lewin's field theory. B. Freud's structural theory. C. the James-Lange theory of emotion. D. cognitive dissonance theory. ```

Answer 44

Correct Answer is: D According to cognitive dissonance theory, simultaneously holding two contradictory ideas or cognitions causes an uncomfortable feeling known as cognitive dissonance, and people have a drive to reduce this dissonance by changing one of the cognitions. This theory has been used to explain results of research in which subjects were induced to behave in a manner contradictory to their stated attitudes. For instance, in an early study on this phenomenon, subjects were instructed to write a counter-attitudinal essay and were paid either $20 or $1 for doing so. Afterwards, subjects in the $1 group displayed significant attitude change in the direction of the opinions in their essays, whereas subjects in the $20 showed no attitude change. According to the researchers, the $1 group experienced dissonance between two cognitions--"I disagree with this point of view" and "I wrote an essay espousing this point of view." Therefore, to reduce dissonance, subjects had to change their attitude to support the viewpoints of the essay. The $20 group did not experience dissonance or attitude change because the external incentive of money could justify their behavior. The question describes a situation that appears similar to the above experiment. From the perspective of the theory, the individuals may have two conflicting cognitions "As a leftist, I don't like large corporations" and "I work for a large corporation." Therefore, they may be motivated to change their attitude in a positive direction towards corporations. Additional Information: Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Question 45

Avoidance behavior is difficult to treat because: Select one: A. classical conditioning models don't apply. B. treatments require unacceptable levels of pain or other aversive applications. C. the feared stimulus is never presented. D. conditioning was done originally on an intermittent schedule.

Answer 45

Correct Answer is: C This is a familiar question. You might have seen something like it before. Once you change the terms into "English," it shouldn't be difficult. Basically it says that a fear (think of a phobia) is difficult to treat because you hardly ever confront it. If someone is afraid of bridges and never travels across a river on a bridge, you can never treat the person. Remember that treatments for phobias include at some point directly confronting the fear, through direct exposure to the feared object. If we avoid the object, we never get the chance to extinguish the reaction. None of the other alternatives comes as close to answering the question. As a test-taking strategy, it's a good idea to translate a question into "English" and give it a simple and exaggerated example. Then, find the answer that best explains your example. Additional Information: Escape and Avoidance Learning

Question 46

``` The ability to unconsciously monitor the contents of one conversation while consciously focusing on another is referred to as: Select one: A. change blindness B. the cocktail-party phenomenon C. exogenous attention D. endogenous attention ```

Answer 46

Correct Answer is: B The cocktail-party phenomenon is a characteristic of selective attention which indicates that even when you are intently focusing on one conversation and unaware of another, the mention of your name will immediately get your attention. Change blindness* refers to difficulty perceiving major changes to unattended-to parts of a visual image when the changes are introduced during brief interruptions in the presentation of the image (See: Rensink, R.A. (2005). Change Blindness. In L. Itti, G. Rees, and J.K. Tsotsos (eds). Neurobiology of Attention. (pp. 76-81). San Diego, CA: Elsevier.) Exogenous attention* refers to the automatic attraction of attention, due to, among others, the sudden appearance of a stimulus. This is a typical bottom-up process, controlled by external stimulus presentation, and not under subjects' control. Endogenous attention* refers to a typical top-down, attentional effort under control of the individual, for example, when attention is being focused on the basis of instructions (* incorrect options). Additional Information: Attention

Question 47

``` An elementary school-aged child with symptoms of generalized anxiety participates in a treatment that involves exposure, or practicing approaching and confronting a feared situation or object, and rewards her when she does so. This is called: Select one: A. family anxiety management (FAM). B. exposure. C. systematic desensitization. D. reinforced practice. ```

Answer 47

Correct Answer is: D Like exposure*, reinforced practice involves practicing approaching and confronting a feared situation or object, to make confronting it easier. However, unlike exposure, reinforced practice rewards the child when he/she does so. Family Anxiety Management* (FAM) teaches parents to reward the child for confronting his/her feared situation or object, and ignore excessive complaining when confronted with his/her feared situation or object. Systematic desensitization* involves encouraging the child to imagine his/her feared object or situation while he/she is engaged in a response that is incompatible with anxiety (e.g. relaxation or play), instead of physically exposing them to the feared object or situation (* incorrect options). Additional Information: Generalized Anxiety Disorder

Question 48

``` When an animal's normal response rate is restricted, that behavior becomes more preferred and therefore reinforcing. This is a description of: Select one: A. probability-differential theory B. response deprivation theory C. matching law D. maximizing law ```

Answer 48

Correct Answer is: B All of the response choices are explanations or theories of operant/instrumental conditioning. Timberlake and Allison's response deprivation theory proposes when an animal's normal response rate (e.g., eating food) is restricted (e.g., by food deprivation), that behavior becomes more preferred and therefore reinforcing. probability-differential theory The probability-differential theory, also known as the Premack Principle, claims that an activity will have reinforcing properties when its probability of occurrence is greater than that of the behavior it is intended to reinforce. matching law Herrnstein's matching law, based on economic principles of costs and rewards, predicts that when an animal can choose from two or more simultaneously available reinforcement contingencies, that responding to each contingency will be proportional to the reinforcement on each schedule. maximizing law In contrast, the maximizing law proposes an animal will respond in a manner to achieve the maximum rate/number of rewards possible. Additional Information: Matching Law (Operant Conditioning)

Question 49

``` Memories that are recalled without conscious effort are referred to as: Select one: A. episodic B. explicit C. implicit D. semantic ```

Answer 49

Correct Answer is: C Implicit memories are retrieved without conscious awareness and are also referred to as procedural memories which consist mostly of skilled responses, actions or procedures. Procedural memory is one of the two types of long-term memory. episodic Episodic memory consists of autobiographical memories or memories for personal events. explicit The other type of long-term memory is declarative or explicit memory, which consists of episodic and semantic memory. semantic Semantic memory contains memories of general knowledge (e.g., language and facts). Additional Information: Types of Long-Term Memory, Multi-Store Model

Question 50

``` Memories of one's personal experiences are contained in which aspect of long-term memory: Select one: A. semantic B. procedural C. implicit D. episodic ```

Answer 50

Correct Answer is: D Episodic memory consists of autobiographical memories or memories for personal events. Semantic memory* contains memories of general knowledge. Episodic and semantic memory are the two divisions of declarative memory, one of the two types of long-term memory. The other type of long-term memory is procedural. Procedural memory* contains memories of skilled responses and actions. Implicit memory* refers to memories that are recalled without conscious effort (* incorrect options). Additional Information: Types of Long-Term Memory, Multi-Store Model

Question 51

``` A parent finds that she has to nag her son more and more to get him to stop teasing his sister. The last time it happened, the boy finally stopped his teasing after his mother's 16th angry request. The boy's compliance is best described as the result of Select one: A. escape conditioning. B. avoidance conditioning. C. stimulus discrimination. D. stimulus generalization. ```

Answer 51

Correct Answer is: A In this situation, the boy stops teasing his sister because, presumably, this stops his mother's nagging. In other words, by complying with her request, he escapes an aversive stimulus. Additional Information: Escape and Avoidance Learning

Question 52

``` A primary reinforcer is the same as: Select one: A. A conditioned reinforcer B. The first reinforcer used C. Pseudoconditioning D. An unconditioned reinforcer ```

Answer 52

Correct Answer is: D A primary reinforcer is the same as an unconditioned reinforcer. These are items that acquire their reinforcing value without special training. Food and water are examples of primary reinforcers. Additional Information: Primary and Secondary Reinforcers

Question 53

Which of the following best describes the distinction between shaping and chaining? Select one: A. shaping involves reinforcement for successive approximations of a single behavior; chaining involves providing a chain of reinforcement for one behavior B. shaping involves providing successive approximations of a reinforcer for a given behavior over a period of time; chaining involves reinforcing multiple behaviors with the same reinforcers C. shaping involves reinforcing component parts of one simple behavior; chaining involves many simple behaviors that are linked to form a more complex behavior D. there is no distinction between these two terms; they are essentially synonymous

Answer 53

Correct Answer is: C The correct choice best describes the distinction between shaping and chaining. Shaping involves reinforcing successive approximations of a single behavior as the person approaches that behavior. For instance, an autistic individual learning to speak might be reinforced first for moving his mouth, then for uttering nonsense sounds, and then for saying a particular word. The successive approximations being reinforced are all components of one behavior. Chaining, on the other hand, involves linking a group of simple behaviors to form a more complex response chain. For instance, a child learning to put on his shirt might first learn to open the drawer, then put his shirt on over his head, and then button the shirt. Each of these behaviors is a separate behavior, but can be linked as a set to constitute the more complex behavior of putting on the shirt. Additional Information: Techniques that Use Reinforcement

Question 54

``` "Flashbulb memories" are vivid memories of emotionally-arousing events. Flashbulb memories are considered part of Select one: A. procedural memory. B. implicit memory. C. episodic memory. D. prospective memory. ```

Answer 54

Correct Answer is: C Like other episodic memories, flashbulb memories are for events that involve specific people, places, or things and that occurred at a specific time. Additional Information: Flashbulb Memory

Question 55

When a person is given time to remember a list of unrelated words and is then immediately asked to recall the words in any order, he will recall words at the beginning and the end of the list to about the same degree and better than words in the middle of the list. If there is a brief delay (10 or 30 seconds) and they are asked to engage in a distractor task between studying the words and recalling them, the person will Select one: A. recall words at the end of the list best. B. recall words at the beginning of the list best. C. recall words in the middle of the list best. D. recall words in the beginning, middle, and end of the list to about the same degree.

Answer 55

Correct Answer is: B This question is asking about the serial position effect, which predicts that the poorest recall will be for information in the middle of a list. Research on the serial position effect has shown that memory for information at the beginning and end of a list varies, depending on whether there is a delay before recall is required. When there is a brief delay and a distractor, memory for information at the beginning of the list is better than memory for information at the end of the list. Additional Information: Serial Position Effect

Question 56

According to M. Seligman's theory of learned optimism, a student with an optimistic attribution style who fails an exam in a class which he usually does well in is most likely to say: Select one: A. "I was unlucky" B. "I didn't study enough" C. "the teacher is always a tough grader" D. "the test was hard this time"

Answer 56

Correct Answer is: D In Seligman's theory of learned optimism, attributions of optimistic people are believed to be the opposite of attributions of depressed people. Since depressed people make internal, stable, and global attributions to negative events, optimistic people would tend to make external, unstable, and specific attributions in response to negative events. Therefore, we can readily eliminate "I didn't study enough" since that's an internal attribution. "The teacher is always a tough grader" is a stable attribution. That leaves two choices ("I was unlucky" and "the test was hard this time") - which are both external and unstable attributions. Of the two, however, "the test was hard this time" is better since being unlucky would imply that success is a matter of luck. Additional Information: Reformulated Learned Helplessness Model

Question 57

Meta-cognition has been defined as "knowing about knowing." A more precise definition might be: Select one: A. philosophical knowledge about the nature of knowledge, such as about limits of knowledge and the validity of our observations. B. scientific knowledge about human knowledge, such as the parts of the brain involved in long-term memory storage and the stages of cognitive development. C. an individual's knowledge about his or her own cognitive processing, such as strategies that enhance the efficiency of memorization. D. knowledge about what somebody else knows.

Answer 57

Correct Answer is: C Metacognition refers specifically to knowledge we have about our own cognitive processes, rather than about the nature of human knowledge in general. Additional Information: Metacognition

Question 58

``` The misinformation effect (hindsight bias) may be a form of: Select one: A. retroactive interference. B. motivated forgetting. C. repression. D. proactive interference. ```

Answer 58

Correct Answer is: A To answer this question, you need to understand what retroactive and proactive interference are. Retroactive interference occurs when your ability to recall X is difficult because of interference by something you learned after X. The longer the period of time between learning X and being tested on it, the greater the opportunity for retroactive interference. Proactive interference occurs when the ability to recall X is impaired by previously learned material. Proactive interference can occur regardless of how long the interval is between learning X and recalling it. Finally, retroactive and proactive interference are most likely to be a problem for information that is not inherently meaningful, which would be the case for a set of unrelated words. Additional Information: Misinformation Effect

Question 59

``` It has been found that abused children often cling to their abusive parents. This can be explained in behavioral terms as the effect of Select one: A. extinction. B. delayed conditioning. C. intermittent reinforcement. D. spontaneous recovery. ```

Answer 59

Correct Answer is: C Most abusing parents are abusive only some of the time. Other times they are quite loving and protective. In behavioral terms, this means that the child is on an intermittent reinforcement schedule, and, more specifically, a variable ratio schedule. In other words, any given behavior, including clinging, will be reinforced after a variable and unpredictable number of responses. Intermittent reinforcement schedules, and especially variable ratio schedules, tend to produce behaviors that are difficult to extinguish. This could explain why the clinging behavior continues. Additional Information: Schedules of Reinforcement

Question 60

In implosive therapy: Select one: A. the client is gradually exposed, through the imagination, to a feared stimulus, one step at a time. B. a client is immediately exposed, through the imagination, to a feared stimulus at its maximum intensity. C. the client is gradually exposed, in-vivo, to a feared stimulus, one step at a time. D. a client is immediately exposed, in-vivo, to a feared stimulus at its maximum intensity.

Answer 60

Correct Answer is: B Implosive therapy involves imaginal exposure to a feared stimulus. The person is immediately exposed to the stimulus at its maximum intensity. The purpose of implosive therapy is to extinguish a person's fear; in addition, the technique incorporates psychodynamic themes thought to underlie the fear into the imagery. Additional Information: Implosive Therapy

Question 61

A teacher finds out that if she yells at a disruptive boy in class, he will calm down for a few minutes. Over time, her yelling becomes louder and more frequent. Which of the following statements best describes, in behavioral terms, what is happening in this situation? Select one: A. The teacher's yelling is serving as positive reinforcement for the boy, which is why he is becoming more and more disruptive over time. B. The teacher's yelling is serving as positive punishment, but the boy is becoming habituated over time. C. The teacher's yelling is probably serving as negative punishment for her, because she likely finds the situation to be aversive; however, it is serving as positive punishment for the boy, because he seems to enjoy being yelled at. D. The teacher's yelling is serving as positive reinforcement for herself, as she seems to enjoy yelling.

Answer 61

Correct Answer is: B In behavioral terms, the term "positive" means that a stimulus is applied (not, as implied by this choice, that the stimulus is pleasurable or enjoyable: teacher's yelling is probably serving as negative punishment for her, because she likely finds the situation to be aversive; however, it is serving as positive punishment for the boy, because he seems to enjoy being yelled at). In this case, the stimulus being applied is the teacher's yelling. And punishment means that the stimulus has the effect of reducing a behavior. In this case, the yelling has the effect of temporarily reducing the boy's disruptiveness, so it is punishment. The question illustrates a disadvantage of punishment -- the recipient becomes habituated (which just means he or she gets used to it) and it is necessary to keep increasing the intensity of the punishment for it to be effective. Additional Information: Reinforcement and Punishment

Question 62

With regard to strategies for retaining information that one studies for in order to succeed on a test, which of the following statements regarding massed vs. distributed study is most correct? Select one: A. massed study requires less time spent studying; distributed study results in better long-term retention. B. massed study results in better long-term retention; distributed study requires less time spent studying. C. massed study results in better long-term retention and requires less time spent studying. D. distributed study results in better long-term retention and requires less time spent studying.

Answer 62

Correct Answer is: D Massed practice or study (also known as "cramming") refers to studying in sessions of relatively long duration separated by short time intervals; distributed practice refers to studying over a longer period of time, in sessions separated by relatively greater time periods. Distributed practice is associated with better long-term retention of the study material; with massed practice, the material tends to be quickly forgotten after the test is taken. In addition, with distributed learning, less overall time spent studying is needed to learn the same amount of material than would be required with massed learning. Massed study results in faster learning of material almost by definition, because it is done over a shorter period of time, but the question refers to overall time spent studying, not the total period of time it takes to learn the material.

Question 63

``` To remember a list of terms that she must memorize for an exam, a student visualizes all of the objects in her dorm room and then associates each object in the room with one item in the list. The mnemonic device that the student is using is known as the Select one: A. method of loci. B. story method. C. peg method. D. link method. ```

Answer 63

Correct Answer is: A A mnemonic device is a method that one can use to enhance memory for specific information. Numerous effective mnemonic devices have been identified; this question describes, one, the method of loci that dates back to Ancient Greek times. It involves identifying a place one is familiar with and associating visual images of different locations within that place to items of information that one must remember. At the time of retrieval, one uses the images of the familiar location as cues for recall of the items. The other choices also describe mnemonic devices. The story method involves constructing a story about the items to be remembered. The peg method involves memorizing a list of words (the "pegs") that are easily associated with a number, and then associating information that must be remembered to the pegs. In order to facilitate memory of the pegs, a rhyming method (e.g., "one is a bun, two is a shoe") may be used to generate them. And the link method involves generating images of items that link individual items in a list in some way, and then remembering the links in order recall the whole chain. Additional Information: Mnemonic Devices

Question 64

A 17-year-old male involved in a skateboarding accident suffered a head trauma resulting in deficits to his declarative memory. He would likely have the most difficulty: Select one: A. riding a skateboard B. recalling when he rode his first skateboard at 10-years-old C. recalling his own name D. recalling what he ate for lunch yesterday

Answer 64

Correct Answer is: D Declarative or explicit memories are long-term memories that one can consciously recall. They include semantic (factual information) and episodic (personally experienced) memories. Riding a skateboard requires procedural memory. All of the other choices require explicit memory; however, memory deficits due to head trauma or disease usually affect recent long-term memory before affecting remote long-term memory. Additional Information: Types of Long-Term Memory, Multi-Store Model

Question 65

``` Aggressive thoughts result in aggressive behavior, which in turn has the effect of causing others to have aggressive thoughts. This is an example of: Select one: A. reciprocal determinism B. covert modeling C. impulsive aggression D. instinctual drift ```

Answer 65

Correct Answer is: A This is an example of Bandura's (1986) concept of reciprocal determinism. From this perspective, the relationship between personal factors or cognitions, behavior and the environment take turns influencing or being influenced by each other. As in this case, not only does the environment influence thoughts and thoughts impact actions but also actions effect the environment. Covert modeling* involves the learning of new behaviors or the altering of existing behaviors by imagining scenes of others interacting with the environment. Impulsive aggression* describes emotion-driven aggression produced in reaction to situations in the "heat of the moment." Instinctual drift* refers to the tendency for learned behavior to drift toward instinctual behavior over time (* incorrect options). Additional Information: Bandura's Observational Learning

Question 66

``` Negative reinforcement is essential to: Select one: A. escape conditioning. B. punishment. C. aversion conditioning. D. phobias. ```

Answer 66

Correct Answer is: A The concept of negative reinforcement involves increasing the likelihood of a behavior through the elimination of an aversive stimulus (the negative part). As you might recall, this is exactly what the dog does by learning to escape the electric shock by jumping to the other side of the cage. This is the classic example of escape conditioning. Jumping to the other side is reinforced by the elimination of the aversive stimulus. You may have chosen punishment, but this is the common error of confusing negative reinforcement with punishment. To avoid this error, keep in mind that reinforcement (whether negative or not) and punishment are antithetical. Additional Information: Escape and Avoidance Learning

Question 67

Which of the following concepts was introduced by a National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) work group as a diagnostic entity for changes in memory that come with age? Select one: A. Age-Associated Memory Impairment (AAMI) B. Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) C. Cognitive Impairment, Not Dementia (CIND) D. Benign Senescent Forgetfulness (BSF)

Answer 67

Correct Answer is: A In most people, the hippocampus shrinks with age and causes mild memory decline. The first attempt to differentiate between normal memory function, pathological memory processes and a mild form of memory loss was introduced by Kral's concept of benign senescent forgetfulness (BSF). (See: Kral, V.A. (1962). Senescent forgetfulness: Benign and malignant. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 86, 257-260.) In 1986, a NIMH work group proposed diagnostic criteria of age-associated memory impairment (AAMI). This was the first attempt to operationally define mild cognitive impairment. In identifying individuals with subjectively and objectively evidenced memory loss, without the cognitive decline or impairment to warrant the diagnosis of dementia, the AAMI criteria include: the presence of subjective memory decline; objective evidence of memory loss (in a well-standardized memory test, a score at least one standard deviation below the mean of younger adults); adequate intellectual function; and the absence of dementia or other memory-affecting disease (e.g., stroke) in a person aged 50 years or older. (See: Crook, T.H., Bartus, R.T., Ferris, S.H., Whitehouse, P., Cohen, G.D., & Gershon, S. (1986). Age-associated memory impairment: Proposed diagnostic criteria and measures of clinical change-Report of a National Institute of Mental Health workgroup. Developmental Neuropsychology, 2, 261-276.) Other terms for the condition of subjective memory problems are Cognitive Impairment, Not Dementia (CIND) and Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI). CIND classifies all cases of cognitive impairment which do not meet the criteria for dementia, usually due to medical or psychiatric conditions. The specific pre-dementia syndrome of Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) is treated as a subcategory among these cases. MCI is described as a transition stage between the cognitive changes of normal aging and the more serious problems caused by Alzheimer's disease. Individuals with MCI are able to function reasonably well in everyday activities, and are able to manage without assistance. The disorder can be divided into subtypes: amnestic MCI, which significantly affects memory, and nonamnestic MCI, which does not. In either type, functions such as language, attention and visuospatial skills, may be impaired. With MCI, the hippocampus shrinks at a faster rate and causes more severe memory problems than normal aging, although the decline is less rapid than in mild Alzheimer's disease (See: Bischkopf, J., Busse, A., Angermeyer, M.C. (2002). Mild cognitive impairment: A review of prevalence, incidence and outcome according to current approaches. Acta Psychiatrica Scandaniva, 106, 403-414.) Additional Information: Memory in Adulthood

Question 68

``` The most effective behavioral technique to reduce a school-aged child's temper tantrums is: Select one: A. modeling B. extinction C. positive reinforcement D. negative reinforcement ```

Answer 68

Correct Answer is: B Extinction is the elimination or reduction in the frequency of a response achieved by the removal of the reinforcement maintaining the response. The extinction of temper tantrums would entail ignoring the child's behavior or not reinforcing it with attention. This technique has been found to be effective for reducing temper tantrums. Positive and negative reinforcement are used to strengthen behaviors. Modeling is used to teach new behaviors which are the incorrect options. Additional Information: Operant extinction

Question 69

The levels-of-processing model of memory includes three levels--acoustic, phonetic, and semantic. All three of these levels have been compared to self-referencing, and the findings indicate Select one: A. semantic is more easily recalled than the others. B. self-referencing is more easily recalled than the others. C. phonetic is most easily recalled. D. semantic is the most difficult to recall.

Answer 69

Correct Answer is: B Rogers and associates (Self-reference and the encoding of personal information, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1977, 35, 677-688) found that self-referencing (Have I done this before? Where was I?) results in significantly more recall than semantic referencing. Previous to this finding, semantic processing ("semantic is more easily recalled than the others") had been considered to be the most effective type of information processing. Additional Information: Levels of Processing Model

Question 70

The behavioral technique called thought stopping is exemplified by: Select one: A. experimenting with new behaviors in order to dispute irrational beliefs. B. practicing relaxing while thinking of anxiety provoking images related to smoking. C. snapping a rubber band on the wrist whenever getting an urge to smoke. D. recording smoking intake for two weeks.

Answer 70

Correct Answer is: C Thought stopping is designed to interrupt the seemingly automatic chain of cognitions that are cues to acting impulsively or compulsively or lead to unwanted behavior such as through self-applying an aversive technique. Additional Information: Thought Stopping

Question 71

``` An individual imagining others engaging in a variety of alternative or desirable behaviors is using the technique known as: Select one: A. overcorrection B. simple modeling C. covert sensitization D. covert modeling ```

Answer 71

Correct Answer is: D Covert modeling is based on its overt, simple modeling equivalent. Covert modeling involves the learning of new behaviors or the altering of existing behaviors by imagining scenes of others interacting with the environment. Overcorrection involves an individual consistently being reinforced for engaging in behaviors other than the target behavior during a predetermined period of time. Covert sensitization uses counterconditioning in imagination to reduce or eliminate a target behavior. An individual imagines he/she is engaging in the undesirable behavior and then imagines an aversive consequence for doing so. Additional Information: Covert Modeling, Covert Sensitization

Question 72

Which of the following behavioral techniques is the best example of negative punishment? Select one: A. differential reinforcement for other behaviors (DRO) B. response cost C. reducing the amount of time a child is grounded due to "good behavior" D. a spanking

Answer 72

Correct Answer is: B Operant behavioral interventions rely on consequences to increase or decrease the frequency or strength of a behavior, and reinforcement and punishment are the methods used to deliver those consequences. Reinforcement increases the strength or probability of a response, punishment decreases the strength of a response. Reinforcement and punishment can be positive or negative; positive means a stimulus is applied following a response; negative means a stimulus is removed following a response. Thus, negative punishment involves removal of a stimulus following a response in order to decrease that response. Response cost involves removal of a prespecified reward every time a person performs an undesired behavior. For example, a child's allowance may be reduced or skipped if the child yells at her parents. Thus, of the choices listed, it is the only example of negative punishment. Additional Information: Techniques That Use Punishment

Question 73

``` A 17-year old boy keeps playing his drums too loudly. His mother complains that "the more she yells at him, the louder he plays." From the perspective of operant conditioning, the yelling would be described as Select one: A. positive reinforcement. B. punishment. C. negative reinforcement. D. a discriminant stimulus. ```

Answer 73

Correct Answer is: A Operant conditioning refers to learning that is based on consequences; specifically, learning that occurs following the application or removal of a stimulus. The operant conditioning paradigm distinguishes among four ways of learning: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment. In all these terms, the word "positive" refers to a stimulus being applied; "negative" refers to removal of a stimulus; "reinforcement" refers to increasing the strength or frequency of a behavior, and "punishment" refers to decreasing a behavior. In this case, the behavior (drumming) increases in strength following the application of a stimulus (yelling). In other words, the yelling is functioning as positive reinforcement. Additional Information: Reinforcement and Punishment

Question 74

The misinformation effect refers to the impairment in memory for the past that occurs after exposure to misleading information. Research on susceptibility and resistance to this effect has found: Select one: A. the impairing effect of misleading information gets weaker over time B. subjects misled just before testing tend to perform better than those who are misled just after witnessing the event C. warnings about potential misinformation may inhibit its impairing effect D. the passage of time appears to increase discrepancy detection ability

Answer 74

Correct Answer is: C According to Loftus' Discrepancy Detection principle, susceptibility to misinformation is inversely related to the ability to notice discrepancies. Therefore, if an individual is aware that post-event information may not be correct then the probability of the misinformation effect is reduced. Warning individuals before they receive post-event information that it might be inaccurate or misleading, increases vigilance and the likelihood that discrepancies between actual and suggested events will be spotted. Resistance to post-event suggestion is greatest when an individual has a strong, accurate original memory. Consistent information also improves memory performance. Research indicates greater susceptibility to misinformation is associated with: the passage of time, it lowers discrepancy detection ability* and the impairing effect of misleading information gets stronger over time*; longer retention times, which decrease memory performance; timing of reporting/testing, individuals misled immediately before being tested tend to perform worse than those misled immediately after witnessing the event* (* incorrect options). Age is also associated with varying susceptibility to misinformation with young children more susceptible than older children and adults and the elderly more susceptible than are younger adults. (See: Loftus, E. (2005). Planting misinformation in the human mind: A 30-year investigation of the malleability of memory. Learning and Memory; 12, 361-366.) Additional Information: Misinformation Effect

Question 75

``` The best treatment for someone who has difficulty making friends, is shy, and can't maintain steady employment is: Select one: A. individual social skills training. B. paradoxical intention. C. token economy. D. group social skills training. ```

Answer 75

Correct Answer is: D Treatment for very shy individuals who have trouble in interpersonal settings (as implied by the fact that the person cannot hold a job) typically involves social skills and assertiveness training. Although both of these treatments can be administered in individual therapy, the group format has a number of advantages: there are multiple models, and opportunities for feedback, support, and vicarious learning. These aren't available in individual training sessions. Thus, "group social skills training" is the best answer.

Question 76

Which of the following represents a good reason to use interval recording in the process of behavioral observation? Select one: A. the behavior being measured has no clear beginning or end B. the behavior has a sudden and discrete onset C. the behavior does not occur very often D. the behavior is poorly defined and it is therefore difficult to obtain agreement as to whether or not it is occurring

Answer 76

Correct Answer is: A The interval recording method involves observing a behavior for a single block of time, such as 30-60 minutes per day. The block of time is divided into smaller intervals (e.g., 30 seconds), and the behavior is recorded as having occurred or not occurred during each interval. This is a good method of recording behaviors with no fixed beginning or end, since the observer does not have to identify at what point the behavior began or ended -- he or she simply has to note whether it is occurring at all during a particular time interval. Additional Information: Observational Researcher Recording Behaviors

Question 77

``` The idea that a behavior can be learned at one point in time but not displayed until reinforcement is available is consistent with which of the following models of learning? Select one: A. Kohler's "a-ha" model B. Thorndike's law of effect C. Tolman's Latent Learning D. Pavlov's Classical Conditioning ```

Answer 77

Correct Answer is: C In the 1930s, Edward Tolman demonstrated the concept of latent learning in maze studies with rats. He showed that rats previously exposed to a maze, but with no reward for solving it, solved the maze much more quickly in later trials with reward, as compared to rats without previous exposure. The idea of latent learning, contrary to previous models, was that learning can occur without an explicit reward and such latent learning will manifest itself through behavior at a later time when a reward for it is available. Tolman proposed that the model applies to humans--for example, when we drive or walk the same route daily and learn the locations of various buildings and objects, but only display that knowledge when we need to find a particular object. Additional Information: Tolman's Latent Learning

Question 78

``` From the perspective of Bandura's social learning theory, "functional value" refers to: Select one: A. external reinforcements. B. anticipated consequences. C. self-efficacy beliefs. D. relationship to previous learning. ```

Answer 78

Correct Answer is: B Functional value is pretty much what it sounds like. According to Bandura, a behavior has functional value when the person anticipates that performing it will result in desirable consequences (i.e., when the behavior serves a function). Additional Information: Bandura's Observational Learning

Question 79

According to the hopelessness theory of depression, hopelessness is a: Select one: A. proximal necessary cause of depression B. proximal sufficient cause of depression C. distal necessary cause of depression D. distal sufficient cause of depression

Answer 79

Correct Answer is: B The hopelessness theory of depression is a revised version of the 1978 reformulated theory of helplessness and depression. The authors of the hopelessness theory propose that hopelessness is a cause, rather than a symptom, of depression. Specifically, they suggest that hopelessness is a "proximal sufficient cause" of depression. "Proximal," in this case, means that in a chain of causal factors, hopelessness occurs at the end of the chain - closest to the resulting symptoms of depression. "Sufficient," in this case, means that the presence of hopelessness is enough to cause depression. proximal necessary cause of depression However, contrary to this choice, hopelessness is not a necessary condition for depression. That is, factors other than hopelessness can also cause depression [L. Y. Abramson, G. I. Metalsky, & L. B. Alloy, Psychological Review, 1989, 96(2), 358-372]. Additional Information: Reformulated Learned Helplessness Model

Question 80

``` Procedural memory is to declarative memory as: Select one: A. skill is to fact B. fact is to experience C. explicit is to implicit D. echoic is to iconic ```

Answer 80

Correct Answer is: A This question is asking you to compare different models of memory which can be confusing. Long-term memory is categorized into explicit (or declarative) and implicit (or procedural). Explicit or declarative memory refers to retrieval with a conscious awareness of remembering. This includes memory of facts such as "George Washington was the first president of the United States," as well as the meaning of words (semantic memory), and memory of episodic (autobiographical) events. Implicit or procedural memory is an unconscious type of retrieval for automatic skills and memory for how to do things, i.e. procedures. skill is to fact This choice correctly associates procedural memory to skill and declarative memory to fact. explicit is to implicit In this choice, the terms are reversed. fact is to experience To some extent, the terms are reversed. echoic is to iconic This refers to the auditory (echoic) and visual (iconic) storage of sensory memory, which only holds information for a few seconds. Additional Information: Types of Long-Term Memory, Multi-Store Model

Question 81

Which of the following most accurately reflects the process of backward conditioning? Select one: A. Establish a response on a continuous schedule then use an intermittent schedule of reinforcement. B. Repeatedly present the CS and the US simultaneously. C. Repeatedly present the CS before the US. D. Repeatedly present the US before the CS.

Answer 81

Correct Answer is: D Repeatedly present the CS before the US. In forward conditioning, which is used in classical conditioning to establish a conditioned response, the CS is presented prior to the US. Repeatedly present the US before the CS. In contrast, backward conditioning entails presenting the US prior to the CS. Establish a response on a continuous schedule then use an intermittent schedule of reinforcement. Changing from a continuous to an intermittent schedule is referred to as "thinning" and not the procedures associated with backward conditioning.

Question 82

``` Once a behavior has been established through operant conditioning, the behavior would most likely ________________ immediately following the removal of the reinforcer. Select one: A. increase B. decrease gradually C. decrease rapidly D. remain the same ```

Answer 82

Correct Answer is: A In operant extinction, removal of a reinforcer does not result in an immediate decrease of the behavior. In fact, what occurs initially is a temporary increase in behavior, which is known as a "response burst." Additional Information: Operant extinction

Question 83

Which of the following is most likely to stimulate divergent thinking? Select one: A. brainstorming B. a review of the facts and evidence from a variety of sources C. analysis and integration of remembered information D. comparing and contrasting two different models

Answer 83

Correct Answer is: A Divergent thinking is a creative elaboration of ideas prompted by a stimulus. It enables one to "diverge" from traditional approaches, or what is commonly referred to as "thinking out of the box." Brainstorming, in which people are encouraged to generate all the ideas they can without worrying about evaluation or censure, encourages divergent thinking. The other choices listed all stimulate convergent thinking, which is based on an analysis of information usually leading to a single solution. Additional Information: Strategies for Improving Group Performance

Question 84

Which of the following is NOT true regarding sensory memory? Select one: A. It has virtually an unlimited capacity. B. It does not retain information for more than 2 seconds. C. It stores altered forms of the original stimulus. D. It stores iconic, echoic, and haptic memories.

Answer 84

Correct Answer is: C In the three-stage model of memory, sensory memory is the first stage. It preserves a large amount of sensory information for a very brief period of time (only a second or two). Information from all the senses can be stored in sensory memory. Visual stimuli are stored as "iconic" memories; auditory stimuli are stored as "echoic" memories; and kinesthetic stimuli are stored as "haptic" memories. It stores altered forms of the original stimulus. Contrary to this choice, sensory memories are believed to be represented in the form of the original stimuli; that is, they are not stored in an altered form. Additional Information: Multi-Store Model, Multicomponent Model of Working Memory

Question 85

According to behavioral theory, depression is generally considered to result from: Select one: A. negative punishment B. noncontingent punishment C. prolonged extinction D. having to make finer and finer stimulus discriminations

Answer 85

Correct Answer is: C There are several behavioral models of depression but probably the oldest is the operant conditioning model, which describes it as the result of being on an extinction schedule for an extended period of time. The depressed person has had little or no access to reinforcement. Additional Information: Operant extinction

Question 86

``` The tendency to respond to a new stimulus as if it's the original conditioned stimulus is referred to as: Select one: A. stimulus generalization B. higher-order conditioning C. spontaneous recovery D. stimulus discrimination ```

Answer 86

Correct Answer is: A In classical conditioning, stimulus generalization is the tendency to respond to a new stimulus as if it's the original conditioned stimulus. In operant conditioning, it's the tendency to respond to a new stimulus as if it's the original discriminative stimulus. In classical conditioning, higher order conditioning* refers to the process by which a neutral stimulus comes to act as a conditioned stimulus by being paired with another stimulus that already evokes a conditioned response; and spontaneous recovery* refers to the reappearance of an extinquished conditioned response. Stimulus discrimination* refers to the tendency not to have a conditioned response to a new stimulus that's similar to the original conditioned stimulus. In operant conditioning, it's the tendency for a response to happen only when a particular stimulus is present (* incorrect options). Additional Information: Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination

Question 87

``` In the aversive counterconditioning of a fetish, the fetish object is the: Select one: A. unconditioned response B. unconditioned stimulus C. conditioned response D. conditioned stimulus ```

Answer 87

Correct Answer is: D The aversive conditioning of a fetish involves pairing an aversive stimulus with the fetish object until the object also comes to elicit the response of aversion. The fetish object is the conditioned stimulus, since it comes to evoke aversion through conditioning (i.e., pairings). The aversive stimulus is the unconditioned stimulus, since it elicits aversion naturally, without conditioning.

Question 88

``` Watson's 11-month old Little Albert, after being exposed to a loud noise while playing with a rat, avoided the rat as well as a rabbit, a dog, and cotton. This is an example of: Select one: A. aversive counterconditioning B. higher-order conditioning C. stimulus generalization D. response generalization ```

Answer 88

Correct Answer is: C Stimulus generalization occurs when one conditioned stimulus is generalized to other stimuli. aversive counterconditioning Aversive counterconditioning uses classical conditioning to reduce or eliminate an undesirable behavior. higher-order conditioning In higher-order conditioning a CS, after being paired with a US, becomes reinforcing on its own and can be paired with a second CS. For example, once a bell is paired with food resulting in salivation, the bell can be paired with a light until the light alone elicits salivation. response generalization Response generalization occurs when a CS elicits not only the CR but other responses similar to it. Additional Information: Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination

Question 89

``` Of the following reinforcement schedules, which produces behavior that is most resistant to extinction? Select one: A. fixed interval. B. variable interval. C. variable ratio. D. continuous. ```

Answer 89

Correct Answer is: C In operant conditioning, reinforcement refers to a stimulus (e.g., reward) applied following a behavior that increases the frequency or strength of that behavior. Reinforcement can be administered either on a continuous or partial schedule. With continuous schedules, reinforcement is applied every time the behavior occurs (e.g., a dog gets a treat every time he does a trick). On a partial schedule, the reinforcement is administered some, but not all the time, following the behavior. For example, on a variable ratio schedule, reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable number of responses. Gambling is an example of a behavior reinforced on a variable ratio schedule; sometimes one bet can lead to a win, and sometimes it might take a hundred or more. A variable ratio schedule produces behavior more resistant to extinction (i.e., more difficult to eliminate by removing reinforcement) than a continuous schedule or other partial schedules. The other types of partial reinforcement schedules are fixed ratio, where the behavior is reinforced after a fixed number of responses; fixed interval, where reinforcement occurs after a fixed amount of time following the behavior; and variable interval, where reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable amount of time. Additional Information: Schedules of Reinforcement

Question 90

Which of the following is an example of an implicit memory? Select one: A. recalling the first time you drove a car B. knowing how to dress yourself C. knowing the definition of implicit memory D. recalling a time when someone implied that you had done something that you hadn't

Answer 90

Correct Answer is: B Implicit memories are recalled without conscious effort or awareness. This is in contrast to explicit memories which are retrieved with conscious awareness. Implicit memories can generally be considered the same as procedural memories, which is about how to do things. Dressing oneself and driving a car are examples of implicit/procedural memories. These can be done automatically, without conscious thought. However, this choice, "recalling the first time you drove a car" is an explicit, episodic, conscious memory and is different than simply "driving a car." Knowing the meaning of words ("knowing the definition of implicit memory ") involves explicit, semantic memories. Additional Information: Multi-Store Model, Multicomponent Model of Working Memory

Question 91

Marital therapy based on the principles of social learning theory most often emphasizes Select one: A. behavioral therapy combined with communication and problem-solving skills training. B. individual exploratory therapy for each spouse combined with communication and problem-solving skills training. C. group therapy combined with communication and problem-solving skills training. D. group therapy combined with individual behavior-oriented therapy for each spouse.

Answer 91

Correct Answer is: A Social learning theory has been applied to family therapy in the area of marital therapy as well as child management. In both cases, the emphasis is on behavioral methodology as well as on communication and problem-solving skills. For example, in marital therapy based on the principles of behavioral and social learning theory, typical methods include functional analysis of the spouses' behaviors, contracts stipulating specific behavioral changes, communication skills training, and directive advice regarding solutions to problems. Consistent with the principles of social learning theory, the therapist will often model healthy communication and interpersonal behavior for the couple. Additional Information: Bandura's Observational Learning

Question 92

``` You are using overcorrection to modify a child's misbehavior. If the child refuses to comply with your requests during the procedure, you would most likely use which of the following? Select one: A. participant modeling B. withdrawal of attention C. verbal reprimands D. physical guidance ```

Answer 92

Correct Answer is: D Overcorrection involves two phases -- restitution and positive practice -- which both require the individual to perform certain corrective behaviors. If the individual doesn't comply, he/she may be physically guided through the desired behaviors. Additional Information: Overcorrection

Question 93

Habituation would be most likely to occur in which of the following situations. Select one: A. An experimenter repeatedly presents the same stimulus. B. An experimenter increases the intensity of a stimulus. C. An examinee focuses his/her attention. D. Background music is played during exposure to the stimulus.

Answer 93

Correct Answer is: A Habituation most likely occurs if the experimenter repeatedly presents the same stimulus. Habituation is defined as a decrease in response strength due to repeated stimulation and occurs when one no longer responds to a repeatedly applied stimulus. It is believed to occur because of a decrease in the amount of neurotransmitter released. Additional Information: Techniques That Use Punishment

Question 94

``` A person stops and asks a parking attendant for directions after getting lost while driving to an appointment. The attendant states, "Make a left at the first red light. Go four blocks until you reach a stop sign and turn right onto Main Street. About three blocks down Main, look for a large red sign at the entrance to the parking lot." What type of memory is needed to hold such information? Select one: A. procedural memory B. working memory C. short term memory D. long term memory ```

Answer 94

Correct Answer is: B The type of memory needed to hold the directions in one's mind while working on it is called working memory. In the 1980s, Baddeley and Hitch coined the term "working memory" for the ability to hold several facts or thoughts in memory temporarily while solving a problem or performing a task. Baddeley defined the process of rapid verbal repetition of the to-be-remembered information to facilitate maintaining it in working memory, as an "articulatory loop." He found there is a neural system or central executive in the frontal portion of the brain responsible for processing information in the "working memory." Short-term memory* holds information in mind for only a few seconds as it is processed. Long-term memory* is where such processed information is permanently stored. Working memory is an intermediary and active memory system in the information processing area of the brain (* incorrect options). [See: Baddeley, A.D., & Hitch, G.J. (1974). Working memory. In Bower, G.A. (Ed.) Recent advances in learning and morivation (Vol. 8). pp. 47-90. New York: Academic Press. See: Baddeley, A.D. (1986). Working Memory. Oxford: Oxford University Press.]

Question 95

``` Feature integration theory predicts that the perception of an object as an entity rather than as a cluster of unrelated features depends on: Select one: A. focused attention. B. integrated attention. C. selective attention. D. divided attention. ```

Answer 95

Correct Answer is: A Feature integration theory is what it sounds like. It's a theory about how an object's features are integrated, and it proposes that focused visual attention is required for perception of an object to occur. Additional Information: Feature Integration Theory

Question 96

In learning theory, the term "habituation" can be defined as Select one: A. elimination of the conditioned response following removal of the unconditioned stimulus. B. a progressive decrease in the magnitude of the unconditioned response due to repeated exposure to the unconditioned stimulus. C. a decrease in an operant response following repeated exposure to a positive reinforcer. D. a decrease in an operant response following removal of a positive reinforcer.

Answer 96

Correct Answer is: B This question includes terminology related to classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Habituation is a term related to classical conditioning, or the pairing of a neutral stimulus (conditioned stimulus, or CS) with a stimulus that elicits an automatic response (unconditioned stimulus, or US) until the former comes to elicit the same response as the latter. For example, Pavlov paired a ringing bell (CS) with food (US) until the bell alone came to elicit salivation in dogs. In classical conditioning terms, the unconditioned response (UR) is the natural response to the US and the conditioned response (CR) is the learned response to the CS. The term "habituation" refers to a decrease in the unconditioned response following repeated exposure to the unconditioned stimulus. A common example is tuning out loud noise once one gets used to it. At first, such noise may cause an unconditioned response of distraction or fear, but if one lives on a busy loud street, one will get used to that noise and its effects will lessen. elimination of the conditioned response following removal of the unconditioned stimulus. Elimination of the conditioned response following removal of the unconditioned stimulus is called classical extinction. For example, in Pavlov's experiment, if the bell is repeatedly presented without ever being paired with food again, the dogs' salivation response will eventually fade away. a decrease in an operant response following repeated exposure to a positive reinforcer. a decrease in an operant response following removal of a positive reinforcer. These two responses refer to operant conditioning, or learning that occurs due to consequences of behavior. A decrease in a response following repeated exposure to a positive reinforcer is known as satiation. For example, the effectiveness of rewarding a dog for doing a trick with the positive reinforcement of a biscuit will be reduced as the dog receives more and more biscuits in the same learning trial. And a decrease in an operant response following removal of a positive reinforcer is known as operant extinction. Using the same example, if one fails to give the dogs any reward for performing the trick, the dog will eventually stop doing it. Additional Information: Techniques That Use Punishment

Question 97

``` Every time a 6-year-old child uses obscene language his mother reprimands him. Unfortunately, the child's use of obscene language increases. The mother's reprimands can best be described as: Select one: A. positive reinforcement B. negative reinforcement C. positive punishment D. intermittent reinforcement ```

Answer 97

Correct Answer is: A Despite the mother's intentions, her reprimands appear to result in an increase in her child's undesirable behavior. The application of a stimulus following a response that increases the frequency of that response is, by definition, positive reinforcement. Punishment, by definition, always decreases the frequency of a behavior - which did not occur in this case. And the mother's behavior is not an example of intermittent reinforcement because she is reprimanding the child every time he uses obscene language. Additional Information: Reinforcement and Punishment

Question 98

According to Albert Bandura's model of learning, participant modeling is more effective as a therapeutic technique than simple modeling because: Select one: A. participant modeling decreases the client's initial level of anxiety. B. participant modeling increases the client's feelings of self-efficacy. C. participant modeling can be used to treat a wider variety of problems. D. participant modeling is more logistically practical and less expensive than simple modeling.

Answer 98

Correct Answer is: B Participant modeling (sometimes called contact desensitization or modeling with guided participation) refers to the technique of demonstrating a task and then having the client participate. Usually, the participation portion involves guidance by the therapist, either verbally or through actual physical contact. According to Bandura, both simple modeling and participant modeling increase the client's expectancies that performing the modeled behavior will lead to a desirable outcome. However, unlike simple modeling, participant modeling has the additional benefit of increasing the client's feelings of self-efficacy; i.e., the expectancy that he or she will be able to perform the behaviors being modeled. Additional Information: Bandura's Observational Learning

Question 99

``` Large amounts of information can be kept in short-term memory through the use of: Select one: A. the "savings" method. B. eidetic memory. C. chunking. D. mnemonics. ```

Answer 99

Correct Answer is: C The classic finding in the area of research into short-term memory (STM) is the "7 +/- 2" finding; i.e., that STM has the capacity of storing 7 plus or minus 2 pieces of information at one time. Chunking is a technique designed to increase the amount of information that can be kept in STM -- it involves grouping larger amount of information into single chunks. In other words, STM is used to store 7 +/- 2 chunks rather than 7 +/- 2 isolated bits of information. Mnemonics are used to increase the efficiency of encoding newly learned information, which increases the ease with which that information is retrieved from long-term memory. Additional Information: Multi-Store Model, Multicomponent Model of Working Memory

Question 100

In classical conditioning, experimental neurosis occurs when Select one: A. discriminating between a conditioned stimulus and a neutral stimulus becomes too difficult. B. discriminating between an unconditioned stimulus and a conditioned stimulus becomes too difficult. C. discriminating between behavior that will elicit reinforcement and behavior that won't becomes too difficult. D. discriminating between behavior that will elicit punishment and behavior that won't becomes too difficult.

Answer 100

Correct Answer is: A In Pavlov's classical conditioning paradigm, a stimulus that naturally elicits a response (the unconditioned stimulus, or US) is paired with a neutral stimulus (the conditioned stimulus, or CS) until the latter comes to elicit the same response as the former. For example, using dogs as experimental subjects, Pavlov paired food (US) with pictures of a circle (CS) until the pictures of the circle came to elicit a salivation response (conditioned response, or CR). To induce experimental neurosis, Pavlov presented pictures of ellipses, which did not elicit conditioned responses, but then he presented pictures of circles and ellipses that were progressively more indistinguishable from each other. The dogs became extremely agitated, barking and howling, and attempted to escape from the experimental situation. Pavlov termed their condition experimental neurosis and proposed that it was analogous to neurosis in humans. In other words, experimental neurosis results when a conditioned stimulus is indistinguishable from a neutral stimulus that has not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus. Additional Information: Ivan Pavlov

Question 101

Which of the following is true regarding sensory memory? Select one: A. It has a very limited capacity. B. It can hold information for up to 30 seconds. C. It is also referred to as primary memory. D. It is a representation of external stimuli.

Answer 101

Correct Answer is: D A sensory memory is a representation of an external stimulus after the stimulus has ended. Sensory memories are believed to be unprocessed copies of the original stimuli which briefly reside in the sensory organs. Sensory memory is thought to have an unlimited capacity but a very short duration (no more than 2 or 3 seconds). "Primary memory" and "secondary memory" are terms originally used by William James and these later became known as "short-term memory" and "long-term memory." Additional Information: Multi-Store Model, Multicomponent Model of Working Memory

Question 102

``` Crystallized functions are considered to be: Select one: A. dependent on cultural factors B. dependent on learning and education C. culture-free D. independent of learning ```

Answer 102

Correct Answer is: B Crystallized Intelligence (Gc) is the breadth and depth of a person's acquired knowledge of a culture and the effective application of this knowledge. According to the APA Dictionary of Psychology, crystallized abilities are those abilities "such as vocabulary and cultural knowledge, that are a function of learning and experience in a given culture. Crystallized abilities are believed to depend on physiological condition somewhat less than do fluid abilities; thus they may be better sustained in old age. They are also believed by some to derive from fluid abilities." Additional Information: Theories of Intelligence

Question 103

``` In an operant conditioning experiment, researchers flash a light to signal the subject that she will receive a dollar bill for finding the ace of spades in a deck of cards. This signal is called: Select one: A. a reinforcement. B. a stimulus. C. fading. D. a discriminative stimulus. ```

Answer 103

Correct Answer is: D A discriminative stimulus is a cue indicating some contingency (reinforcement or punishment) will occur if a particular behavior is emitted. That's the case here -- the light is serving as a cue that the person will be reinforced for finding the ace of spades. The alternative "stimulus" is too vague because that term is much less specific than discriminative stimulus. The situation isn't reinforcement because a reinforcer always occurs after the behavior, not before. Finally, fading is related to the discriminative stimulus, but refers to a process in which the signal is slowly withdrawn before the behavior occurs. Additional Information: Stimulus Control, Stimulus Discrimination and Generalization

Question 104

If you are going to be tested on the definitions of unrelated words at 8:00 in the morning two weeks from today, you should keep in mind when deciding when to study that: Select one: A. retroactive interference is more of a concern if you study the night before the exam rather than the week before. B. retroactive interference is more of a concern if you study the week before the exam rather than the night before. C. proactive interference is more of a concern if you study the week before the exam rather than the night before. D. retroactive and proactive interference are not a problem with this kind of learning.

Answer 104

Correct Answer is: B To answer this question, you need to understand what retroactive and proactive interference are. Retroactive interference occurs when your ability to recall X is difficult because of interference by something you learned after X. The longer the period of time between learning X and being tested on it, the greater the opportunity for retroactive interference. Proactive interference occurs when the ability to recall X is impaired by previously learned material. Proactive interference can occur regardless of how long the interval is between learning X and recalling it. Finally, retroactive and proactive interference are most likely to be a problem for information that is not inherently meaningful, which would be the case for a set of unrelated words. Additional Information: Interference Theory

Question 105

``` There is evidence that the effectiveness of systematic desensitization for reducing anxiety is actually due to repeated exposure to the feared stimulus, which leads to extinction of the anxiety response. However, systematic desensitization was originally developed as an application of Select one: A. negative reinforcement. B. counterconditioning. C. stimulus discrimination. D. avoidance conditioning. ```

Answer 105

Correct Answer is: B In systematic desensitization, anxiety-arousing stimuli are paired with stimuli that produce an incompatible response (often relaxation). In other words, it was designed to use counterconditioning in order to eliminate an anxiety response. Some research suggests, however, that it is actually just the exposure to anxiety-arousing stimuli, without aversive consequences, that explains the effectiveness of this technique. Additional Information: Techniques Based on Counterconditioning

Question 106

The best example of an intrinsic reward system is: Select one: A. a person working hard 8 hours a day in order to obtain respect and recognition from his superiors. B. a hyperactive child placed on a token-reward system of reinforcement. C. studying hard to pass the psychology licensing exam. D. a boy collecting stamps.

Answer 106

Correct Answer is: D This question merely requires you to think about the word "intrinsic," which means internal. For the incorrect choices, external rewards are motivating the behaviors; however, a boy collecting stamps is usually motivated by his own intrinsic interest in the hobby. You should know that problems occur when we take something that is intrinsically rewarding and provide extrinsic rewards for it. Then, the person typically stops working for the intrinsic rewards and attributes his behavior to the extrinsic rewards. That's been termed "turning play into work." Additional Information: Intrinsic Reinforcement

Question 107

Overlearning would be most useful when you are trying to: Select one: A. learn how to play the violin. B. understand fractal geometry. C. memorize the state capitals. D. learn to solve complicated calculus problems.

Answer 107

Correct Answer is: C In general, overlearning (practicing or rehearsing beyond the level of mastery) is good. However, it seems most effective for simple tasks that must be remembered for a long period of time. Additional Information: Overlearning

Question 108

Which of the following statements best exemplifies the Premack Principle? Select one: A. If you're a good boy, you'll get candy. B. If you don't get home before midnight, you'll be grounded. C. Eat your spinach before you go out to play. D. I have no idea what those socks are doing on the chandelier.

Answer 108

Correct Answer is: C The Premack Principle refers to using a frequently occurring behavior to reinforce an infrequently occurring one. The correct choice is an example -- if the child eats his spinach (presumably, something he does not do very often on his or her own), he will be allowed to play (presumably, something he does quite often on his own). Additional Information: Techniques that Use Reinforcement

Question 109

Thinning refers to the process of: Select one: A. switching from a fixed interval to a fixed ratio schedule B. switching from a variable interval to a variable ratio schedule C. switching from an intermittent to a continuous schedule D. switching from a continuous to an intermittent schedule

Answer 109

Correct Answer is: D Continuous schedules, or reinforcing every response, are associated with quick learning, satiation and extinction. The process of thinning, or switching from a continuous to an intermittent schedule, is used to increase the resistance to extinction once a behavior is established. Additional Information: Schedules of Reinforcement

Question 110

``` A sequence of behaviors, in which each behavior serves as reinforcement for the previous behavior, is the outcome of Select one: A. chaining. B. shaping. C. positive reinforcement. D. graded exposure. ```

Answer 110

Correct Answer is: A According to the operant conditioning paradigm, chaining is how complex behaviors made up of a sequence of simpler behaviors are developed. In chaining, each response serves as reinforcement for the previous behavior and a discriminant stimulus for the next behavior on the chain. Additional Information: Techniques that Use Reinforcement

Question 111

In vivo exposure with response prevention involves: Select one: A. alternately presenting the CS and US. B. simultaneously presenting the CS and US. C. repeatedly presenting the US without the CS. D. repeatedly presenting the CS without the US.

Answer 111

Correct Answer is: D In vivo exposure with response prevention involves exposing an individual to a feared or anxiety evoking stimulus and then blocking him or her from engaging in the usual avoidance response. The technique is based on the principle of classical extinction, which involves repeatedly presenting a conditioned stimulus (CS) without the unconditioned stimulus (US). The idea is that the anxiety or fear developed through classical conditioning, or a pairing of a conditioned stimulus (the feared stimulus) and an unconditioned stimulus (a stimulus that naturally causes fear). Additional Information: Techniques Based on Classical Extinction

Question 112

Which of the following seems the best illustration of encoding specificity? Select one: A. difficulty learning new material unless already know some related subject information B. difficulty learning general arguments but easily learning specific points C. easily recalling information learned when in a similar situation to initial learning but difficulty remembering the information when in a different context. D. easily learning meaningful information but difficulty learning abstract information unless already know some related subject information

Answer 112

Correct Answer is: C The encoding specificity principle of memory states that recall for information or memory is improved when information available at encoding is also available at retrieval (Tulving & Thomson, 1973). This information can include: environmental context (e.g., same place, time of day, people present); emotional state (i.e., if sad better recall of unhappy memories); physical state (i.e., if learned under the influence of a drug, will perform better if tested under the influence of the same drug); and sensory modality (if learned in verbal format may answer verbal questions better). Encoding specificity is also referred to as encoding-retrieval interaction, transfer-appropriate processing and state-dependent memory (SDM). (See: Tulving, E., & Thomson, D.M., (1973). Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory. Psychological Review, 80, 352-373.) Additional Information: Encoding Specificity

Question 113

``` Exposure treatment is a technique that is widely used in cognitive-behavioral treatment for panic disorder and anxiety disorders. The technique that induces the bodily sensations that mimic those experienced during a panic attack is called: Select one: A. in vivo exposure B. systematic desensitization C. interoceptive exposure D. flooding ```

Answer 113

Correct Answer is: C Generally speaking, exposure treatment involves presenting an individual with anxiety-producing stimuli long enough to decrease the intensity of their emotional reaction so that the feared situation or thing no longer makes the individual anxious. Exposure procedures have two forms: exposure to environmental situations that each patient fears and exposure to the physical sensations associated with panic attacks. Interoceptive exposure involves the structured and repeated exposure to panic-like physical sensations such as hyperventilation, shaking head and body tension. in vivo exposure Exposure treatment for feared objects and situations can be carried out in real situations, in vivo exposure; or it can be done through imagination, imaginal exposure. systematic desensitization The category of imaginal exposure includes systematic desensitization, which asks an individual to imagine certain aspects of the feared object or situation in combination with relaxation. This is sometimes also called graded or graduated exposure, which refers to exposing an individual to the feared situation in a gradual manner. flooding Flooding refers to exposing an individual to the anxiety-provoking or feared situation all at once and keeping him or her in it until the anxiety and fear subside. Additional Information: Techniques Based on Classical Extinction

Question 114

From a behavioral perspective, addictive behaviors such as drug use are difficult to treat because they Select one: A. provide intermittent reinforcement. B. are reinforced on a variable ratio schedule. C. involve a complex chain of behaviors. D. are self-reinforcing.

Answer 114

Correct Answer is: D A behavior is self-reinforcing if it provides reinforcement for itself. A good example of this is a behavior such as addictive drug use. Because it provides pleasure and relief of cravings, it reinforces (increase the probability and strength of) further drug use. Since the behavior leads to more of the same behavior and is not under the control of a third party who can deliver or withhold the reinforcement, it is difficult to change. Additional Information: Etiology (Substance Use Disorders)

Question 115

``` In the treatment of panic disorder, a person is asked to run up and down the stairs in order to induce tachycardia. The mechanism by which this intervention would be curative is Select one: A. extinction. B. stimulus generalization. C. stimulus discrimination. D. higher-order conditioning. ```

Answer 115

Correct Answer is: A In cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) for Panic Disorder, a central focus is on misinterpretation of physical symptoms. From the perspective of CBT, catastrophic interpretations increase fear, leading to more physical reactions and thus causing a feedback loop that spirals out of control and causes panic attacks. One intervention in CBT for Panic Disorder is to induce physical symptoms such as tachycardia, while preventing the person from reacting to the symptoms. The idea is to expose the person to the symptoms, so she habituates to them and learns that they are nothing to fear. In classical conditioning terms, this can be viewed as classical extinction. In classical conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus (US), or a stimulus that naturally produces a response, is paired with a conditioned stimulus (CS) until the CS, when presented alone comes to elicit the same response as the US (conditioned response, or CR). Classical extinction involves eliminating the CR by "de-associating" the CS and the US; i.e., the CS is repeatedly presented by itself, not paired with the US, until it no longer elicits the CR. From the CBT perspective, in Panic Disorder, the US is an initial sense of anxiety and physical symptoms such as tachycardia are conditioned stimuli. Therefore, exposing the person to physical symptoms when anxiety is not present (i.e., the CS without the US) can be conceptualized as classical extinction. Additional Information: Techniques Based on Classical Extinction

Question 116

Which of the following would most likely be remembered? Select one: A. a political advertisement expressing views consistent with the viewer's beliefs B. a political advertisement expressing views opposite to the viewer's beliefs C. an emotionally-charged event D. an emotionally-charged event which was expressively suppressed

Answer 116

Correct Answer is: C As you may have guessed, memory is enhanced for emotionally-charged events. Research has also found that this enhancement is not solely due to increased attention (S. Christianson, E. Loftus, H. Hoffman, & G. Loftus. Eye Fixations and Memory for Emotional Events, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 1991, 17(4), 693-701). an emotionally-charged event which was expressively suppressed Attempts to suppress emotion have been found to decrease one's memory for the event. Examples of emotional suppression include biting one's lip to keep from crying or maintaining a poker face after being dealt a great hand of cards (J. Richards & J. Gross. Emotion regulation and memory, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2000, 79(3), 410-424). Additional Information: Flashbulb Memory

Question 117

Meichenbaum's stress inoculation training was created for the purpose of helping people cope more effectively with stress by increasing their coping skills. This technique involves three stages including: Select one: A. conceptualization, skills training, and application. B. cognitive modeling, overt instruction, and covert instruction. C. formulation, problem focus, and termination. D. self-monitoring, self-evaluation, and self-reinforcement.

Answer 117

Correct Answer is: A The three overlapping stages of stress inoculation training are sometimes referred to by similar but varied terms. In general, the first stage is referred to as the conceptualization, education, or cognitive phase; the second stage is referred to as the skills application or training phase or the skills acquisition and rehearsal phase; and the third phase is referred to as the application or application and follow-through phase. conceptualization, skills training, and application. This choice lists the steps in Meichenbaum's self-instructional training. self-monitoring, self-evaluation, and self-reinforcement. This lists the three objectives of Rehm's self-control therapy Additional Information: Stress Inoculation Training

Question 118

``` Of the following, which is the best way to facilitate memory of something you have recently learned? Select one: A. sleep B. study related material C. study unrelated material D. engage in strenuous physical activity ```

Answer 118

Correct Answer is: A Research has demonstrated that recall of a particular piece of information is greater after a given time period of sleep than after the same period of wakeful activity. This finding lends support to the interference theory of forgetting, which proposes that forgetting of a given piece of information is caused by interference from other information. When one is sleeping, there is less potential for any such interference to occur. Additional Information: Theories of Forgetting

Question 119

``` Alloy, Abramson, and Metalsky have revised the learned helplessness model of depression and de-emphasized the role of Select one: A. punishment. B. reinforcement. C. helplessness. D. attributions. ```

Answer 119

Correct Answer is: D Alloy, Abramson and Metalsky (1989) theorize that attributions are only important when they contribute to feelings of hopelessness. They expand upon this idea in their article, Hopelessness depression: A theory-based subtype of depression, Psychological Review, 1989, 96(2), 358-372. Additional Information: Reformulated Learned Helplessness Model

Question 120

Bandura completed the classic study on aggression in children and learned that: Select one: A. children tend to imitate the aggressive behavior of adults B. children are less likely to imitate adults they admire C. children only imitate aggression seen on television D. children only imitate live models

Answer 120

Correct Answer is: A Bandura (1963) showed the effect on children of witnessing either live or filmed models. He showed that not only do children imitate the aggressive behaviors of adults, but that the more important, liked, and familiar the adults are, the more the children will imitate them. Additional Information: Bandura's Observational Learning

Question 121

``` Thorndike's notion of "identical elements" is most applicable to Select one: A. attentional capacity. B. transfer-of-training. C. elaboration. D. reinforcement effects. ```

Answer 121

Correct Answer is: B The name Thorndike may have sent you in the wrong direction on this one since you're probably most familiar with his work on the "law of effect." However, he also studied other phenomena including factors that increase transfer of training. He found that similarities in the learning and performance environments ("identical elements") resulted in better transfer. Additional Information: Edward Thorndike

Question 122

``` To study perception in infants, you present an infant with a sight or sound until he/she stops looking at or turning toward it. The phenomenon you are using to study infant perception is called Select one: A. satiation. B. habituation. C. equilibration. D. adaptation. ```

Answer 122

Correct Answer is: B In learning theory, habituation occurs when an individual no longer responds to punishment. More generally, the term is used when a person no longer responds to a stimulus that is repeatedly presented. Habituation is often used to study infant perception. Additional Information: Techniques That Use Punishment

Question 123

From the perspective of operant conditioning, depression is the result of: Select one: A. a prolonged extinction schedule. B. repeated exposure to noncontingent punishment. C. response generalization. D. a lack of stimulus discrimination.

Answer 123

Correct Answer is: A There are several behavioral models of depression but probably the oldest is the operant conditioning model, which describes it as the result of being on an extinction schedule for an extended period of time. The depressed person has had little or no access to reinforcement. Additional Information: Operant extinction

Question 124

``` Behavioral approaches dealing with Autistic children would employ primarily: Select one: A. second-order conditioning. B. negative reinforcement. C. sensory preconditioning. D. shaping. ```

Answer 124

Correct Answer is: D In shaping, or the method of successive approximations, a subject is reinforced for responses that gradually approach the desired behavior. For example, if shaping is used to teach a child to speak, the child first might be reinforced for looking at the trainer's mouth, then only for making a sound at the trainer's prompt, and finally only for imitating the specific sound made by the trainer. This technique is often used in the treatment and education of Autistic children.

Question 125

Lewinsohn's behavioral model hypothesized depression is the result of: Select one: A. a distorted perception of reality B. low self-esteem and pessimism C. a high rate of response-contingent punishment D. a low rate of response-contingent reinforcement

Answer 125

Correct Answer is: D Based on operant conditioning, Lewinsohn's theory proposes depression is associated with a low rate of response-contingent positive reinforcement. A low rate of reinforcement results in a low rate of social and other behaviors due to a lack of reinforcement which essentially extinguishes the contingent behaviors. The model also proposes the low rate of reinforcement elicits depressive behaviors, such as dysphoria, fatigue, and other somatic symptoms as well as cognitive symptoms such as low self -esteem, pessimism, and feelings of guilt. (See: Lewinsohn, P. M. (1974). A behavioral approach to depression. In R. J. Friedman & M. M. Katz (Eds.), Psychology of depression: Contemporary theory and research (pp. 157-178). Oxford, England: John Wiley & Sons.) Additional Information: Lewinsohn's Behavioral Model

Question 126

When using the method of loci, you: Select one: A. sort objects you want to remember into meaningful categories. B. retrieve information by remembering where you were at the time you learned it. C. pair images of objects you want to remember with places you are familiar with. D. make sure that the recall environment is similar to the learning environment.

Answer 126

Correct Answer is: C The word "loci" should have helped you pick the right answer. When using this mnemonic device, you visualize names or objects to be remembered in familiar locations. For example, you might visualize the objects on different pieces of furniture in the living room of your house. When it's time to recall the objects, you visually "walk through" the living room. Additional Information: Mnemonic Devices

Question 127

``` Which technique is an individual using when imagining a person other than him/herself engaging in variety of alternative (desirable) behaviors? Select one: A. operant extinction B. covert sensitization C. covert modeling D. overcorrection ```

Answer 127

Correct Answer is: C Covert modeling is a technique that entails imagining another person engaging in a variety of alternative behaviors and performing the desired behaviors successfully. It enables a person to identify, refine, and practice in his/her mind the necessary steps for completing a desired behavior. operant extinction Operant extinction is when an individual repeatedly engages in the target (undesirable) behavior while reinforcement is consistently withheld. covert sensitization Covert sensitization is a type of aversion therapy that uses counterconditioning in imagination (versus in vivo) in order to reduce or eliminate an undesirable behavior. In other words, an individual imagines he/she is engaging in the target or undesirable behavior and then imagines an aversive consequence for doing so. overcorrection Overcorrection includes being consistently reinforced for engaging in behaviors other than the undesirable behavior during a prespecified period of time. Additional Information: Covert Modeling, Covert Sensitization

Question 128

``` A rat is placed in a Skinner box which has two levers. Pressing Lever #1 delivers a food pellet on a variable interval schedule on an average of every 30 seconds. Lever # 2 also delivers a food pellet on a variable interval schedule, but on an average of every 2 minutes. We would expect the rat to press Lever # 1 in what proportion of the total lever presses? Select one: A. 0.4 B. 0.6 C. 0.8 D. 1 ```

Answer 128

Correct Answer is: C You may have been able to intuitively guess the correct answer. The proportion of lever presses would match the relative frequency of the reinforcement schedule. Since the reinforcement schedule of Lever # 1 compared to Lever # 2 is 4:1, Lever # 1 would receive four-fifths (or 80%) of the total number of presses. Additional Information: Matching Law (Operant Conditioning)

Question 129

Threats of retaliation for aggressive behavior: Select one: A. almost always increase aggression. B. almost always decrease aggression. C. are more likely to deter aggression when the retaliator has high status or power. D. are more likely to deter aggression when the retaliator has previously provoked the person.

Answer 129

Correct Answer is: C The studies have shown that threats of retaliation work in some situations but not in others. Not surprisingly, threats are more likely to suppress aggression when the retaliator is of high status or has a great deal of power. In contrast, if the retaliator has previously provoked the person, threats are more likely to increase aggression.

Question 130

A teacher in a class that includes a 9-year-old boy with ADHD has a timer at her desk and sets it to go off every 15 minutes. If the boy has not interrupted the class during that 15-minute time period, he receives a reward. The technique being used in this instance is known as Select one: A. operant extinction. B. differential reinforcement of other behaviors. C. the Premack Principle. D. negative reinforcement.

Answer 130

Correct Answer is: B Differential reinforcement of other behaviors (or DRO) involves administering reinforcement if a person does not engage in behavior targeted for elimination during a designated time period. It is commonly used with mentally retarded, autistic, and ADHD children. Additional Information: Differential Reinforcement for Other Behaviors (DRO)

Question 131

In terms of operant conditioning, "thinning" refers to: Select one: A. the extinction a previously reinforced response. B. a reduction in positive reinforcement. C. the elimination of stimulus generalization. D. the gradual removal of prompts.

Answer 131

Correct Answer is: B Thinning refers to a reduction in positive reinforcement (e.g., switching from a continuous to an intermittent schedule). Thinning is sometimes confused with the procedure called "fading." In fading, verbal and nonverbal prompts are used to help initiate a response; however once the response is well-established, prompts are gradually removed with the ultimate goal being for the response to occur independently. Additional Information: Schedules of Reinforcement

Question 132

In treating a client suffering from an Anxiety Disorder, a behavior therapist instructs the client to deliberately engage in the anxiety-arousing behavior as often as possible. The therapist's goal in this situation is most likely to Select one: A. neutralize the anticipatory anxiety that is the real source of the client's problem. B. eliminate the client's usual avoidance behavior by evoking his resistance. C. extinguish the anxiety-arousing behavior by removing the reinforcement that is maintaining it. D. diminish the client's anxiety through interoceptive conditioning.

Answer 132

Correct Answer is: A The behavioral technique described in this question is referred to as "paradoxical intention" and is similar in form to the paradoxical techniques used by family therapists, but differs in terms of its theoretical underpinnings. As used by behavior therapists, paradoxical intention is based on the assumption that a person avoids a certain behavior because of the anticipatory anxiety the behavior arouses. When a person deliberately engages in the behavior, a condition of incompatibility is set up and this condition serves to eliminate the anticipatory anxiety. The idea is that engaging in the behavior (or a wish to engage in the behavior) is incompatible with fear of that behavior and, consequently, the fear is neutralized. Additional Information: Techniques Based on Classical Extinction

Question 133

A student wants to memorize a speech to present at an assembly later in the week. Which of the following is likely to be least helpful to the student? Select one: A. paraphrasing the content of the speech B. clarifying the key points in the speech C. reviewing the way the speech is organized and why D. reading the speech over and over aloud

Answer 133

Correct Answer is: D Memory is a group of processes for acquiring, encoding, storing and retrieving information from our brain. The process of getting information into memory for storage is encoding. Semantic encoding involves meaningful organization. Research indicates the best memory retention and retrieval is for things we associate meaning to and store using semantic encoding. Short term memory (STM) is the term used to refer to the ability to access information in mind for a brief time. Information can be kept circulating in short term memory or working memory by rehearsing it; however once the repetition is stopped, the ability to recall the information may be lost quickly. Additional Information: Levels of Processing Model

Question 134

An eyewitness in a trial misstates certain facts about a bank robbery he is testifying about, reporting facts in a way that matches his preconceptions about what typically happens in a bank robbery. This most likely occurred because of the general tendency to Select one: A. remember schema-inconsistent information better than schema-consistent information. B. remember schema-consistent information better than schema-inconsistent information. C. interpret ambiguous information in a schema-consistent manner. D. ignore schema-irrelevant information.

Answer 134

Correct Answer is: C Schemas are organized mental frameworks, developed over time through experience, which we use for understanding events and situations. In other words, they represent summaries and pre-conceptions we have about particular scenarios. For example, we have may have a schema for what happens at a typical meeting in the workplace. Schemas are useful because they help us integrate and interpret vast amounts of information, but they also can cause us to incorrectly interpret information in a manner consistent with our schema. Research has consistently shown that people tend to remember ambiguous or missing information in a schema-consistent manner. In other words, in reconstructing past events, there is a tendency to use our preconceptions to "fill in the blanks." This tendency is in fact a concern in eyewitness testimony, especially as the time lag between the event and the testimony about it increases. ignore schema-irrelevant information. It is true that schema-irrelevant information tends to be forgotten more than schema-consistent or schema-inconsistent information. remember schema-inconsistent information better than schema-consistent information. And, consistent with this choice, schema-inconsistent information will be remembered more than schema-consistent information under certain conditions--if the person is motivated and has sufficient cognitive resources to resolve schema inconsistencies. But even though some of the other choices are true to varying degrees, the question is basically a restatement of the finding that ambiguous information is interpreted in a schema-consistent manner. Additional Information: Schema Theory of Memory

Question 135

Which of the following statements regarding the relationship between anxiety and achievement on academic tasks is true? Select one: A. The higher the anxiety, the better the performance. B. The optimal level of anxiety is lower than it would be for simpler tasks. C. The optimal level of anxiety is higher than it would be for simpler tasks. D. There are no available findings indicating which level of anxiety is optimal.

Answer 135

Correct Answer is: B There is a curvilinear relationship between anxiety and performance. This means that neither too little nor too much anxiety is optimal -- a moderate amount is best. However, the optimal amount of anxiety also depends on the complexity of the task. For complex tasks, the optimal anxiety level is lower than it is for simple tasks. Additional Information: Arousal

Question 136

``` Kohler's classic studies of the role of cognition in learning examined the behaviors of: Select one: A. apes B. dolphins C. ducklings D. rats ```

Answer 136

Correct Answer is: A Wolfgang Kohler is best known for his research with chimpanzees, which is a type of ape. (Apes are considered more like humans than monkeys or lower primates.) In his classic experiments Kohler placed food outside the reach of the chimps to assess their problem solving abilities. In one study, food was placed outside the chimp's cage, and the chimp was given two sticks, neither of which was long enough by itself to reach the food. As the chimp was sitting with the two sticks in his hand, he suddenly seemed to have an "a-ha!" experience: He quickly fit the two sticks together and used the new, elongated stick to reach the food. Kohler called this sudden novel solution "insight learning," which he attributed to a sudden cognitive restructuring of the environment. If you chose ducklings you were probably thinking of Conrad Lorenz' research on instinctual behaviors. Additional Information: Kohler's Insight Learning

Question 137

``` A 10-year old child who has an IQ of 90 is having difficulty doing her homework because she doesn't make use of effective learning strategies. This child would benefit from training in Select one: A. adaptive skills. B. metacognitive skills. C. mindfulness. D. elaborative rehearsal. ```

Answer 137

Correct Answer is: B Metacognition is the ability to monitor one's own cognitive processes while thinking, learning, and remembering. It allows us to identify and use appropriate learning strategies, and the research has shown that learners with below-average intelligence can benefit from training in metacognitive skills. (Note that "mindfulness" is used in the educational psychology literature to refer to effort.) Additional Information: Metacognition

Question 138

``` The first step a parent takes in teaching a child to feed the family cat is showing her how to put the cat food into the dish. After mastering that task, she is taught to open a can of cat food and then put it into the dish. The child is then taught to open the pantry door, take out a can of cat food, open it, and put it in the dish. This is an example of: Select one: A. stimulus control training B. forward chaining C. backward chaining D. sequential training ```

Answer 138

Correct Answer is: C The child has learned a complex behavior by learning the individual responses in the "behavior chain." The procedure in this question is best described as backward chaining: the parent began by teaching the last behavior and then worked backward from there. Additional Information: Techniques that Use Reinforcement

Question 139

``` Which of the following syndromes or conditions is maintained or triggered by environmental cues to a large extent? Select one: A. hypomanic episodes B. overeating C. Generalized Anxiety Disorder D. Obsessive Compulsive Disorder ```

Answer 139

Correct Answer is: B A number of studies have shown that overeating is to a large extent triggered and maintained by environmental cues. For instance, research shows that portion size is a better predictor of how much a person will eat than internal cues such as hunger or satiation, and many authors argue that eating is an automatic behavior triggered by environmental cues that most people are unaware of or unable to ignore. Some studies also suggest that obese people are more sensitive to environmental cues that trigger eating than others, though others have shown that these cues have similar effects on both obese and non-obese individuals. Stimulus control, a behavior technique that seeks to reduce exposure to environmental cues that trigger eating, is often used in the treatment of obesity. Additional Information: Obesity

Question 140

Although considered to be an effective treatment for severe and treatment-resistant depression, ECT often produces adverse side effects including: Select one: A. temporary retrograde amnesia B. permanent retrograde amnesia C. patchy anterograde amnesia D. patchy anterograde amnesia and temporary retrograde amnesia

Answer 140

Correct Answer is: D Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) often results in some memory loss, to varying degrees, though these effects are usually temporary. Most often there is both patchy anterograde and temporary retrograde amnesia. The anterograde amnesia can last up to 6 months and the retrograde amnesia is usually limited to the events that occurred several months prior to the ECT. Additional Information: Electroconvulsive Shock Therapy (ECT)

Question 141

Overcorrection typically involves: Select one: A. restitution, guided movement, and positive practice. B. restitution, positive practice, and negative reinforcement. C. positive practice, cognitive reattribution, and community reintegration. D. restitution, negative reinforcement, and cognitive reattribution.

Answer 141

Correct Answer is: A Overcorrection is a behavioral technique designed to eliminate undesirable behaviors and promote alternative ones. In overcorrection, the person is required first to correct the consequences of a negative behavior (e.g., clean up the shards of a vase he broke); this is called restitution. Then, the person must repeatedly practice alternative behaviors; this is referred to as positive practice. In many cases, the person is physically guided through the restitution and/or positive practice phases. Additional Information: Overcorrection

Question 142

Cognitive dissonance theory suggests that which of the following clients would be most likely to report benefitting from psychotherapy? Select one: A. a wealthy client who pays a very high fee B. a poor client who pays a very high fee C. a wealthy client who pays a very low fee D. a poor client who pays a very low fee

Answer 142

Correct Answer is: B According to the theory of cognitive dissonance, a person is motivated to reduce the negative, aversive state that results when his or her cognitions conflict with each other. From the perspective of this theory, the poor client paying a very high fee would experience a state of dissonance. Therefore, this client, more than those in the other responses, would be motivated to believe that he or she is benefitting from therapy. Additional Information: Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Question 143

``` Stroop color-naming task has been used to study which of the following cognitive processes or phenomena? Select one: A. automatic processing B. encoding specificity C. explicit memory D. heuristics ```

Answer 143

Correct Answer is: A The Stroop task is a method for distinguishing between automatic and controlled processes. The Stroop Color-Word Test is used to screen for neurological damage and relies on verbal identification of a list of color words with each word printed in colored ink not denoted by the word (for example, the word "blue" is printed in green, red or yellow ink). The task is to name the ink color in which each word is printed as quickly as possible with a correct response requiring the inhibition of reading the color name. Individuals with left frontal lesions are often unable to inhibit reading the words and others with attention deficits, including ADHD, also perform more poorly on the Stroop Test compared to those without attention deficits. Additional Information: Stroop Color-Word Test

Question 144

``` Primary memory is the same as Select one: A. implicit memory. B. short-term memory. C. procedural memory. D. episodic memory. ```

Answer 144

Correct Answer is: B Primary memory is another term for short-term memory. On the other hand, the terms secondary and long-term memory are also often used interchangeably. Implicit memory* is an unconscious, nonintentional form of memory. Procedural memory* is memory of how to do certain activities, for example, driving a car, while episodic memory* is the memory of a particular episode, such as your last birthday (* incorrect options). Additional Information: Multi-Store Model, Multicomponent Model of Working Memory

Question 145

``` Which of the following individuals is MOST likely to agree that the performance of the behavior depends on several factors including the characteristics of the setting and the learner's expectations about the outcomes of performing the behavior but that the learning of a behavior can be the result of observation alone: Select one: A. Bandura B. Wittrock C. Lave D. Bruner ```

Answer 145

Correct Answer is: A According to Bandura's observational (social) learning theory, learning can occur without being evident in performance. Wittrock is associated with the generative learning model, which proposes that learners construct meaning from the connections of previous learning and experience with new knowledge or unfamiliar experiences. Lave's situated learning model has two principles: learning is a function of the activity, context and culture in which it occurs; and learning requires social interaction and collaboration. Bruner is associated with discovery learning, which suggests greater learning occurs when individuals engage in situations to question, explore, or experiment for themselves (i.e., information and examples are presented and inductive reasoning is employed until they "discover" the interrelationships). (See: Wittrock, M.C. (1974). Learning as a generative process. Educational Psychologist, 11, 87-95.; Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1990). Situated Learning: Legitimate Periperal Participation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.; and Bruner, J. (1960). The Process of Education, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.) Additional Information: Bandura's Observational Learning

Question 146

Tolman believed that: Select one: A. behavior is a result of the environment B. behavior was just an automatic response to stimuli C. learning could occur without reinforcement D. without reinforcement, no learning could occur

Answer 146

Correct Answer is: C Tolman believed learning could occur even with the absence of a reward, could happen without knowledge that learning occurred and that behavior was not just an automatic response to stimuli but the result of conditioning and cognitive understanding. He also asserted the acquisition of cognitive structures or cognitive maps underlies the concept of latent learning or learning that occurs without reinforcement and does not immediately manifest in behavior. Additional Information: Tolman's Latent Learning

Question 147

Based on his animal learning and cognition research, Wolfgang Kohler concluded that learning is: Select one: A. insightful B. the result of reinforcement and punishment C. the result of trial-and-error D. biologically-based

Answer 147

Correct Answer is: A A co-founder of Gestalt psychology, which focuses on perception, Kohler's research revealed that animals, like humans, appear to experience insight or an "aha" experience while solving problems. Additional Information: Kohler's Insight Learning

Question 148

``` The ability to remember the first and last parts of a lecture, but not the middle part, would most likely be due to: Select one: A. retroactive inhibition B. primacy and recency effects C. method of loci D. selective attention ```

Answer 148

Correct Answer is: B The ability to recall information that is presented at the beginning and ending of a list (or in this case, a lecture) better than the information presented in the middle is known, respectively, as the primacy and recency effects. Together they are referred to as the serial position effect. The serial position effect is believed to occur because material presented at the beginning is transferred to long-term memory, while information at the end is still in short-term memory. Whereas, information in the middle can be affected by interference from information that came before and afterwards, preventing storage in short- or long-term memory. Retroactive inhibition* occurs when a new experience interferes with the recall of an earlier one. Method of loci* is a mnemonic device in which items are associated with mental images of places. Selective attention* involves focusing on one event while filtering out or ignoring irrelevant events (* incorrect options). Additional Information: Multi-Store Model, Multicomponent Model of Working Memory

Question 149

``` The notion that reinforcement is not necessary for learning and that learning does not always manifest in performance is referred to as: Select one: A. latent learning B. place learning C. observational learning D. insight learning ```

Answer 149

Correct Answer is: A According to Tolman's Cognitive Learning Theory, learning is the result of conditioning and cognitive understanding. The acquisition of cognitive structures or cognitive maps underlies the concept of latent learning or learning that occurs without reinforcement and does not immediately manifest in behavior. Place learning* refers to Tolman's description of learning places or paths instead of a series of movements in response to specific stimuli. Observational learning* refers to learning through watching a model behave and then imitating the modeled behavior. Insight learning* is an "a-ha!" experience or a sudden novel solution, which Kohler saw as the result of a sudden internal cognitive restructuring of the environment (* incorrect options). Additional Information: Tolman's Latent Learning

Question 150

``` Attempting to eliminate a behavior by applying a punishment of moderate intensity will most likely Select one: A. have no effect on the behavior. B. suppress the behavior. C. eliminate the behavior. D. increase the behavior ```

Answer 150

Correct Answer is: B Punishment has been show to decrease or suppress behavior, but it does not completely eliminate the behavior. In fact, when the punishment is removed, the behavior is likely to recur, often at a greater than previous strength or frequency. There are ways to increase the chance that the behavior will be completely suppressed; specifically, intense punishment, consistent punishment, and non-delayed punishment are more likely to suppress behavior. However, even when punishment is highly effective, it is not believed to eliminate a behavior, just to strongly suppress it. Moreover, this question refers to moderate punishment, which is less likely to permanently suppress the behavior than strong punishment. Additional Information: Techniques That Use Punishment

Question 151

``` Poor recall for information learned yesterday as the result of learning that took place last month is referred to as: Select one: A. retroactive interference B. proactive interference C. retrograde amnesia D. anterograde amnesia ```

Answer 151

Correct Answer is: B The prefixes ("pro" and "retro") indicate which material is being interfered with. Proactive interference or inhibition occurs when previous learning interferes with new learning. Retroactive interference or inhibition occurs when new learning interferes with previous learning. Retrograde amnesia is a failure to remember events that occurred prior to a trauma. And anterograde amnesia is an impaired ability to learn new information. Additional Information: Interference Theory

Question 152

A mother disciplines a child who had a tantrum and threw the pieces of a board game all over the floor first by making the child pick up the all components of the game and carefully placing them back into the box into the exact place they belong. Then while physically guiding him, she has him take out another board game and carefully set up the game in the correct manner. The behavioral technique the mother has used is Select one: A. negative reinforcement. B. differential reinforcement for other behaviors. C. shaping. D. overcorrection.

Answer 152

Correct Answer is: D Overcorrection is a behavioral technique used to reduce a behavior targeted for elimination and replace it with a more adaptive behavior. It involves two components: restitution and positive practice. Restitution, seen as a punitive phase, involves having the individual correct the consequences of the behavior. In positive practice, the person practices an alternative, appropriate behavior. In both phases, the person often is physically guided and performs the actions in an exaggerated manner. Overcorrection has typically been used to treat disruptive behaviors in developmentally disabled children.

Question 153

``` The extinction of responding to one cue results in an increase in responding to the other is a phenomenon known as: Select one: A. cue deflation B. overshadowing C. potentiation D. backward blocking ```

Answer 153

Correct Answer is: A The cue deflation effect happens when the extinction of a response to one cue leads to an increased reaction to the other conditioned stimulus (CS). It sometimes occurs in a situation where two simultaneous CSs of different salience are paired with an UCS. The extinction of responding to the more salient (overshadowing) CS sometimes produces increased CR strength to the less salient CS. Overshadowing is when two CSs are presented simultaneously and followed by an UCS, the more salient CS is more strongly conditioned than the less salient. In contrast, potentiation refers to when the salient CS enhances the conditioning of the less salient CS. In backward blocking, a conditioned response to the second stimulus is reduced. Two CSs are simultaneously paired with an UCS and then only one of those CSs continues to be paired with the UCS.

Question 154

``` Every time a child engages in one of the prohibited behaviors on a list of targeted behaviors constructed by the child's parents and his therapist, the child's allowance is reduced by 20 percent. The technique being employed in this case is Select one: A. positive punishment. B. time-out from positive reinforcement. C. token economy. D. response cost. ```

Answer 154

Correct Answer is: D Response cost, a form of negative punishment, involves removal of a prespecified reward every time a behavior targeted for elimination is performed. Here, the prespecified reward being removed is a portion of the child's allowance, and the behaviors targeted for elimination are those on the list constructed by the parents and the therapist. Additional Information: Techniques That Use Punishment

Question 155

Which of these pairs is most similar? Select one: A. posttraumatic amnesia and retroactive inhibition. B. retrograde amnesia and proactive inhibition. C. anterograde amnesia and proactive inhibition. D. anterograde amnesia and retroactive inhibition.

Answer 155

Correct Answer is: C To answer this you need to know two concepts in forgetting: one related to neuropsychological functioning, and the other related to cognitive psychology. If amnesia starts from a time of trauma and extends forward into new experiences (e.g., the person can't remember anything occurring after a head trauma), it's anterograde. If the amnesia extends backwards into experiences before the trauma, it's retrograde. So keep this in mind: anterograde for new experiences, retrograde for past experiences. Now let's move to cognitive psychology and compare memory inhibitory processes. Retroactive inhibition occurs when new learning interferes with previous learning. Proactive inhibition occurs when previous learning interferes with new learning. Now, if we make a comparison between the two sets of terms, we will combine proactive inhibition with anterograde amnesia. This is because, in proactive inhibition, the forgetting is for information occurring after a particular event, and in anterograde amnesia, the person cannot retain any information that occurs after a trauma. Retroactive inhibition and retrograde amnesia are analogous for similar reasons, except that the word "before" rather than "after" applies. Additional Information: Theories of Forgetting

Question 156

Explicit memory is associated with each of the following except: Select one: A. priming B. recall or recognition tests C. an active or conscious role in processing information D. a sense of remembering a specific prior experience

Answer 156

Correct Answer is: A Evidence for implicit memory arises in priming, a process from which individuals show improved performance on tasks for which they have been subconsciously prepared. Priming effects, or prior exposure increases retrieval accuracy, helps implicit memory. Explicit memories are created by "doing" something with your experiences such as thinking, talking, writing or studying about them. The more you do, the better you will remember and the internal cues used in processing the information, can be used to initiate spontaneous recall. For example: the words that you used when you've talked about a certain experience will help you a year later when trying to remember this experience. Declarative memory is another term for "explicit memory" because one can clearly or explicitly declare the recalled memory. Declarative or explicit memories are long-term memories that one can consciously recall. They include semantic (factual information) and episodic (personally experienced) memories. The hippocampus, medial thalamus, and prefrontal cortex are associated with explicit or declarative memory and damage to these area would most likely result in deficits in conscious recall of facts and events. Explicit memory deficits due to head trauma or disease usually affect recent long-term memory before affecting remote long-term memory. Additional Information: Types of Long-Term Memory, Multi-Store Model

Question 157

A child is reinforced for cleaning up her room and for doing homework. Reinforcement for the homework is stopped. One could predict that cleaning up will: Select one: A. increase and doing homework will decrease. B. decrease and doing homework will also decrease. C. increase and doing homework will increase. D. decrease and doing homework will increase.

Answer 157

Correct Answer is: A This question has to do with the behavioral contrast effect. If we are reinforced for performing two different operants, and reinforcement for one of these behaviors stops, we tend to increase the rate of the remaining reinforced behavior. That is probably because the reinforcement that remains seems to become more valuable. Additional Information: Operant extinction

Question 158

``` Stimulus A is paired with stimulus B. Stimulus B is then paired with stimulus C until stimulus C elicits the same response that was elicited by stimulus A. This is an example of: Select one: A. chaining B. shaping C. secondary reinforcement D. higher-order conditioning ```

Answer 158

Correct Answer is: D Higher-order conditioning is a classical conditioning procedure in which two stimuli (CS and US) are paired until the conditioned stimulus (CS) produces the conditioned response (CR) and then the CS (which is now referred to as a US) is paired with another CS to elicit the same response. All of the other choices in this question are operant conditioning terms. Operant conditioning involves behaviors and the consequences that follow, rather than the pairing of stimuli. Chaining* is the operant procedure that enables complex behaviors to develop through reinforcement of a sequence of simple behaviors. That is, Behavior A is followed by a reinforcer, which serves as a discriminative stimulus for Behavior B, which is followed by a reinforcer, and so on. Shaping* involves reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior (* incorrect options). Additional Information: Higher-Order Conditioning

Question 159

``` A babysitter is watching her neighbor's 4-year old. The child wants some candy, but the babysitter was told by his mother not to give him any. After listening to the boy's whining for ten minutes, the babysitter gives in. She gives the boy some candy and he stops whining. In this situation, the babysitter's behavior (giving the child candy) is the result of Select one: A. positive punishment. B. negative punishment. C. positive reinforcement. D. negative reinforcement. ```

Answer 159

Correct Answer is: D In this situation, the babysitter's "candy-giving behavior" has increased because it caused a stimulus to be removed (the child's whining). This is negative reinforcement. Additional Information: Reinforcement and Punishment

Question 160

Which of the following is NOT true regarding a variable ratio schedule of reinforcement? Select one: A. It generates a high and constant rate of responding. B. It produces behaviors that are the most resistant to extinction. C. The relationship between the behavior and reinforcement is unpredictable. D. It produces the "scallop effect," with a decreased rate of response following reinforcement.

Answer 160

Correct Answer is: D In the variable ratio schedule, reinforcement occurs after a variable number of responses. It generates a high and constant rate of responding. The variable ratio has been found to result in a high and constant rate of response. It produces behaviors that are the most resistant to extinction. Compared to the other schedules of reinforcement, the responses are the most resistant to extinction. The relationship between the behavior and reinforcement is unpredictable. Since it is a variable schedule, the relationship between the behavior and reinforcement is unpredictable, which contributes to the above characteristics. It produces the "scallop effect," with a decreased rate of response following reinforcement. However, the scallop effect, in which the response rate drops after each reinforcement and increases just before reinforcement is due, is characteristic of fixed schedules, especially the fixed interval schedule. Additional Information: Schedules of Reinforcement

Question 161

The discrimination hypothesis, frustration theory, and sequential theory are alternative explanations for the reason why Select one: A. organisms exhibit experimental neurosis when presented with difficult discriminations during classical conditioning trials. B. organisms do not respond to punishment when it is initially presented at low intensity and then gradually increased in intensity. C. organisms respond for a longer period of time during extinction trials when they were previously reinforced on an intermittent schedule than when they were reinforced on a continuous schedule. D. organisms often exhibit a temporary increase in one reinforced behavior when reinforcement for another previously-reinforced behavior is withdrawn.

Answer 161

Correct Answer is: C This is a difficult question because it asks about some rather obscure theories. So this is one of those questions you wouldn't want to spend too much time trying to figure out on the actual exam. Now you know, though -- these theories are all explanations for the "partial reinforcement effect." Additional Information: Schedules of Reinforcement

Question 162

``` A woman who was in a serious car accident six months ago sees a picture of a car in a newspaper and becomes anxious. This is an example of Select one: A. mediated generalization. B. higher-order conditioning. C. classical conditioning. D. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. ```

Answer 162

Correct Answer is: A The question describes an example of a phenomenon that you may have learned is called stimulus generalization. That is, the woman has been conditioned to respond with anxiety to cars and therefore exhibits the same response to a similar stimulus -- a picture of a car. This process is also sometimes referred to as mediated generalization. In this context, the term "mediated" means that the picture has never been paired with the original source of anxiety (i.e., the accident). Therefore, in order for the picture to cause anxiety, some cognitive mediation must be taking place. Additional Information: Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination

Question 163

In a study, subjects are asked to memorize a list of 12 unrelated words. After a brief period of time, they are asked to count backwards from 100 and are then tested on the word list. These subjects are Select one: A. the experimental subjects in a study on retroactive interference. B. the control subjects in a study on retroactive interference. C. the experimental subjects in a study on proactive interference. D. the control subjects in a study on proactive interference.

Answer 163

Correct Answer is: B the experimental subjects in a study on retroactive interference. the control subjects in a study on retroactive interference. Knowing the difference between retroactive and proactive interference would have helped you narrow the choices down to these two responses. (In retroactive interference subsequent learning interferes with previous learning). In studies on retroactive interference, experimental subjects learn material similar to the original list, while control subjects engage in a dissimilar activity (e.g., counting backwards) that keeps them from rehearsing the list. Additional Information: Interference Theory

Question 164

After reading a best-selling book on parenting, a mother decides to stop using all forms of punishment on her child. By following her self-imposed rule, when her child misbehaves the mother could only continue to: Select one: A. send the child to time-out, which previously resulted in an improvement in the child's behavior B. spank the child, which previously led to additional misbehavior C. yell "STOP!," which caused the child to discontinue misbehaving for a short period of time D. gently explain to the child why his behaviors are inappropriate, which previously resulted in an improvement in the child's behavior

Answer 164

Correct Answer is: B This question requires you to have a clear understanding of the definitions of reinforcement and punishment. "Reinforcement" always increases the frequency or likelihood of the targeted response. "Punishment" always decreases the frequency or likelihood of the targeted response. "Positive" means that a stimulus is applied, and "negative" means that a stimulus is removed. send the child to time-out, which previously resulted in an improvement in the child's behavior This choice is an example of negative punishment because time-out involves the removal of normal activities and because it previously decreased the misbehavior. yell "STOP!," which caused the child to discontinue misbehaving for a short period of time This involved the application of a stimulus (yelling "Stop!"); thus it is positive, and it resulted in a decreased frequency of the misbehavior, and therefore, it is also a form of punishment. gently explain to the child why his behaviors are inappropriate, which previously resulted in an improvement in the child's behavior This involves the application of attention; thus it is positive and because it reduces the frequency of the misbehavior, it would also be a form of punishment. spank the child, which previously led to additional misbehavior Ironically, only this choice would be permitted by the mother's self-imposed rule because the spanking has resulted in further misbehavior; thus, it would be considered a reinforcement procedure. It would also be positive, because it involves the application of a stimulus. Additional Information: Reinforcement and Punishment

Question 165

Research indicates elaborative learning is most effective for: Select one: A. transferring sensory input from sensory memory to short-term memory. B. temporary storage of incoming sensory signals. C. transferring information from short-term memory to long-term memory. D. maintaining information in working memory.

Answer 165

Correct Answer is: C Elaborative rehearsal is a method for improving long-term memory that makes new information more meaningful by associating it with previously acquired or learned information. Research indicates elaborative rehearsal is an effective way for ensuring that material is transferred from short-term memory to long-term memory.

Question 166

``` The phenomenon in which responses are slow at the beginning of a time period and then faster just before reinforcement happens occurs as a result of: Select one: A. variable interval B. fixed interval C. variable ratio D. fixed ratio ```

Answer 166

Correct Answer is: B A scalloped response pattern, in which responses are slow in the beginning of the interval and faster just before reinforcement happens, is typical of a fixed-interval schedule, in which reinforcement occurs after a set amount of time. variable interval In a variable-interval schedule reinforcement happens after a particular average amount of time. variable ratio In a variable-ratio schedule reinforcement happens after a particular average number of responses. fixed ratio In a fixed-ratio schedule reinforcement happens after a set number of responses. Additional Information: Schedules of Reinforcement

Question 167

``` A child is put in "time-out" because he was making other children laugh in class. After 15 minutes in time-out he apologized to the teacher and promised not to do that again. The teacher then allowed him to return to his regular seat. The following day the boy again disrupted the class - making other children laugh. The teacher directed him to go to time-out again. This time, after 5 minutes, the boy apologized and promised not to misbehave again. His remorse is apparently due to: Select one: A. Positive reinforcement B. Negative punishment C. Avoidance conditioning D. Escape conditioning ```

Answer 167

Correct Answer is: D The boy's remorse is apparently due to negative reinforcement, that is, the removal of the aversive stimulus (time-out) led to an increase in the probability of his (remorseful) behavior. Although negative reinforcement is not offered as a choice in this question, escape conditioning is a type of negative reinforcement. In escape conditioning, an individual is able to escape from an aversive stimulus by engaging in a particular behavior. Avoidance conditioning is another form of negative reinforcement in which a cue is presented prior to the aversive stimulus -signaling the individual to avoid it. Additional Information: Escape and Avoidance Learning

Question 168

``` Memory for the rules of logic and inference is part of Select one: A. procedural memory. B. semantic memory. C. episodic memory. D. read-only memory ```

Answer 168

Correct Answer is: B Long-term memory has been divided into three components: semantic memory, procedural memory, and episodic memory. Semantic memory includes memory for the rules of logic and inference, as well as knowledge about language (e.g., what words mean and how they are used). Procedural memory includes information about how to do things, such as how to drive a car. Episodic memory contains information about events that have been personally experienced. Read-only memory (ROM) is not part of long-term memory -- it is a computer term. Additional Information: Types of Long-Term Memory, Multi-Store Model

Question 169

``` An adolescent swearing with friends but not when around adults is example of: Select one: A. response generalization B. stimulus generalization C. stimulus discrimination D. overcorrection ```

Answer 169

Correct Answer is: C Discrimination and generalization refer to the differences in precision of stimulus control, or the ability of a stimulus to alter the probability of a response. Response probabilities vary with different contexts, discriminative stimuli, and reinforcement contingencies (e.g., what is likely to be rewarded, ignored, or punished). In this case, the adolescent behaves differently in one context (with friends) than in another context (with adults). Friends are a discriminative stimulus in which the response of swearing is more likely to occur. Overcorrection is a technique that is used to reduce an undesirable behavior and replace it with a more desirable one. Additional Information: Stimulus Control, Stimulus Discrimination and Generalization

Question 170

``` A bell is paired with food resulting in salivation, the bell is then paired with a light until the light alone elicits salivation. This is an example of: Select one: A. higher-order conditioning B. stimulus generalization C. response generalization D. aversive counterconditioning ```

Answer 170

Correct Answer is: A In higher-order conditioning, a CS, after being paired with a US, becomes reinforcing on its own and can be paired with a second CS. Stimulus generalization* occurs when one conditioned stimulus is generalized to other stimuli. Response generalization* occurs when a CS elicits not only the CR but other responses similar to it. Aversive counterconditioning* uses classical conditioning to reduce or eliminate an undesirable behavior (* incorrect options). Additional Information: Higher-Order Conditioning

Question 171

Research on the effects of normal aging on memory has found that Select one: A. episodic memory is affected more than semantic or procedural memory B. semantic memory is affected more than episodic or procedural memory C. procedural memory is affected more than semantic or episodic memory D. the effects on episodic, semantic, and procedural memory are about the same.

Answer 171

Correct Answer is: A Normal aging has been found to most affect episodic memory which contains memory for specific events including one's autobiography. Semantic memory, which is memory for facts and rules and procedural memory -- which refers to memory for how to do things are less affected by normal aging. Additional Information: Multicomponent Model of Working Memory, Types of Long-Term Memory, Memory in Adulthood

Question 172

"Backwards conditioning" occurs when: Select one: A. a previously reinforced response is no longer reinforced. B. acquisition of a behavioral chain begins with the last response and gradually works toward the first response. C. the unconditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented before the conditioned stimulus. D. the secondary reinforcer is consistently presented before the primary reinforcer.

Answer 172

Correct Answer is: C For the exam, you want to have the term backwards conditioning associated with classical conditioning. It occurs when the US is presented before the CS, which is the wrong way to establish a conditioned response. Additional Information: Factors That Affect the Effectiveness of Classical Conditioning

Question 173

``` In Skinner's operant conditioning paradigm, the evidence indicating that learning has taken place is: Select one: A. response amplitude. B. latency of response. C. rate of responding. D. quality of response. ```

Answer 173

Correct Answer is: C The cumulative response curves, which are always pictured in chapters on learning, show how much and at what rate the organism responded to the reinforcement. Thus, of the choices listed, rate of responding provides the best index of whether learning has taken place. Additional Information: Schedules of Reinforcement

Question 174

``` Research using a "dismantling strategy" suggests that the most critical component of systematic desensitization is: Select one: A. counterconditioning. B. gradual exposure. C. classical extinction. D. operant extinction. ```

Answer 174

Correct Answer is: C A dismantling strategy involves comparing the various components of a treatment. Use of this method has demonstrated that counterconditioning and gradual exposure are not the crucial elements in systematic desensitization. Instead, repeated exposure to the CS without presence of the US is responsible for its positive effects. Additional Information: Systematic Desensitization

Question 175

Craik and Lockhart's Levels of Processing Theory would predict that in order to maximize recall of a list of words a person should: Select one: A. memorize the first letters of each of the words B. memorize the sequence of the words C. make up a rhyme using the words D. recreate the exact mental state that was experienced during the first exposure to the words

Answer 175

Correct Answer is: C The Levels of Processing Theory is an alternative to stage theories of memory. The levels of processing theory proposes that stimuli are processed at different levels, and the deeper the level of processing, the more likely it will be remembered. That is why techniques such as elaborative rehearsal, in which a person thinks about the meaning of new information and its relation to existing memories, is more effective than more superficial approaches such as "mindless" repetition. Of the choices offered in this question, rhyming would be the deepest, and therefore, most effective way to enhance recall. Additional Information: Levels of Processing Model

Question 176

As part of an evaluation of a third-grade girl referred for her disruptive classroom behavior, the school psychologist interviewed the girl's father. The father related that, whenever the girl acted out at home, the parents would make every attempt to be understanding and accepting and would try to reason with her. The father reported that this usually worked in getting the daughter to stop. From a behavioral view, the psychologist would reason that: Select one: A. the girl probably would be better off in a smaller class with less stimulation from competing sources. B. parental attention might be reinforcing the girl's disruptive behaviors. C. the parents' behavior was negatively reinforcing the girl. D. the girl probably modeled her behavior after someone in the family.

Answer 176

Correct Answer is: B In this situation, the child's behavior is increasing following the parent's intervention; in other words, the child is being reinforced. Reinforcement, by definition, increases a behavior. This is positive reinforcement, not (as in "parents' behavior was negatively reinforcing the girl") negative reinforcement. Negative reinforcement involves the removal of a stimulus; here, however, a stimulus is being applied. Additional Information: Reinforcement and Punishment

Question 177

The memory phenomenon of automaticity is associated with all of the following except: Select one: A. reduced the demand on the working memory B. no new learning or little memory modification C. robust and long-term retention of associated skills D. new skills can be acquired quickly

Answer 177

Correct Answer is: D The term automaticity refers to the ability to chunk or to move information between working memory and long-term so rapidly and efficiently that the processes entails virtually no attention on the part of the individual. Automaticity is developed through overlearning which minimizes cognitive load in working memory and allows for higher order processing of information. Some of the other advantages of automaticity include: long-term retention of associated skills, robust under stress and low effort performance. Some limitations associated with automaticity include: the requirement of extended training or a long time to acquire; little memory modification or new learning; individual components of an automatized task or skill become relatively inaccessible to consciousness and therefore are difficult to control; the separate components are difficult to analyze or explain to others; and automatic behaviors are difficult to suppress or modify. (See: Perry, J. (2003). Automaticity: A learned advantage. In B. Hoffman (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Educational Technology.) Additional Information: Automaticity

Question 178

In regard to sensory memory, information is retained for Select one: A. less than two seconds. B. less than twenty seconds. C. a few minutes, if using rehearsal techinques. D. an indefinite amount of time, but it is difficult to access.

Answer 178

Correct Answer is: A Sensory memory holds information from the senses for a very brief period of time--generally less than two seconds. It is not held any longer than this, even with rehearsal techniques ("a few minutes, if using rehearsal techniques"). While some researchers hypothesize that information is retained in long-term memory indefinitely but may be difficult to access, this is not a characteristic of sensory memory. Additional Information: Multi-Store Model, Multicomponent Model of Working Memory

Question 179

In escape conditioning, Select one: A. an aversive stimulus can be avoided by escaping from it in response to a discriminative stimulus. B. experimental neurosis is usually the result. C. learned helplessness is usually the result. D. the aversive stimulus is unavoidable.

Answer 179

Correct Answer is: D In escape conditioning, an organism learns to emit a response in order to terminate an aversive stimulus. An example would be applying an electric shock to a rat and terminating that shock when the rat presses a lever. In other words, the aversive stimulus cannot be avoided. an aversive stimulus can be avoided by escaping from it in response to a discriminative stimulus. By comparison, the this choice describes avoidance conditioning, whereby a discriminative stimulus (i.e., a cue such as a light flashing) is presented before the aversive stimulus is applied, and the organism can learn to avoid the pain before it hits. The escape conditioning paradigm has been applied to a number of real-life problems, such as procrastination, whereby beginning the task in question is viewed as the aversive stimulus from which the person escapes, and marital problems, whereby particular spousal interactions are aversive and escaped from, leading to distance and isolation. Additional Information: Escape and Avoidance Learning

Question 180

Which of the following is likely to be stored in episodic memory? Select one: A. knowing the word elephant names a type of animal B. recollection of what the color purple looks like C. recalling what was served for dinner on a first date D. knowing that people tend to be happy to receive presents

Answer 180

Correct Answer is: C Declarative memory is a type of long-term memory that involves being able to report or declare. Another term for declarative memory is "explicit memory" because one can clearly or explicitly recall the memory. Episodic memory is memory for events that have been personally experienced and is one type of declarative memory. knowing the word elephant names a type of animal Semantic memory is knowledge about language and facts and is considered to the other type of declarative memory. recollection of what the color purple looks like Implicit memories are procedural memories and are retrieved without conscious awareness. Additional Information: Types of Long-Term Memory, Multi-Store Model

Question 181

In an experiment, a psychologist establishes a conditioned startle response to a flashing red light by pairing presentation of the light with a loud noise that naturally elicits a startle reaction. Subsequently, the red light is simultaneously presented with a strong odor just before the loud noise. After many of these conditioning trials, which of the following is likely to occur when the strong odor is presented alone? Select one: A. The strong odor will produce a startle response that is even stronger than the response produced by the red light due to sensitization of the subject. B. The strong odor will produce a very weak or no startle response due to habituation. C. The strong odor will not produce a startle response because blocking will have occurred. D. The strong odor may or may not produce a startle response depending on the original strength of the subject's response to the loud noise.

Answer 181

Correct Answer is: C Blocking occurs when a CS is presented simultaneously with a second stimulus just before the US. Although it would seem that the second stimulus should acquire the properties of a CS from this procedure, that's not what happens. Instead, the second stimulus does not produce a conditioned response. This is referred to as blocking. Additional Information: Blocking

Question 182

``` When treating an anxiety disorder, the greatest amount of anxiety arousal would be obtained by use of which of the following techniques? Select one: A. systematic desensitization B. implosive therapy C. flooding in imagination D. flooding in vivo ```

Answer 182

Correct Answer is: D It makes sense that the greatest amount of anxiety would be elicited when an individual is exposed to an anxiety-arousing stimulus in vivo. Additional Information: Techniques Based on Classical Extinction