6- Industrial / organization psychology Flashcards

Question

Studies examining the predictions of goal-setting theory for work groups suggests that Select one: A. having employees work as a team with team goals results in lower productivity than having employees work as individuals with individual goals. B. having employees work as a team with team goals results in higher productivity than having employees work as individuals with individual goals. C. having employees work as a team with team goals results in similar levels of productivity as having employees work as individuals with individual goals, as long as the goals have been consciously accepted by the employees. D. having employees work as a team with team goals results in similar levels of productivity as having employees work as individuals with individual goals, as long as the goals have been determined by the employees.

Answer 1

Correct Answer is: B A current emphasis in the I/O literature is on team work, and the increased reliance on teams in organizations is supported by research showing that teams are more productive than individuals. Note that, in some situations, group performance is not as good as individual performance (e.g., in certain types of decision-making). However, this question is asking specifically about research related to goal-setting theory, so this is the best response. See A. J. DuBrin, Fundamentals of Organizational Behavior: An Applied Approach, Cincinnati, OH, South-Western College Publishing, 1997. Additional Information: Goal-Setting Theory

Answer 2

Correct Answer is: A Holland's theory categorizes individuals based on their resemblance to six personality types: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional (you can remember the sequence as "RIASEC"). The personality types reflect a person's primary interest, or an environment's primary characteristic; for example, the social type enjoys working with others and avoids ordered, systematic activities that involve tools or machinery. There is overlap between the types, though some types overlap more than others. For example, the social type is relatively more similar to the artistic and enterprising types, and less similar to the realistic, investigative, and conventional types. Additional Information: Holland's Personality and Environment Typology

Answer 3

Correct Answer is: A To answer this question, you need to know that Fiedler referred to task-oriented leaders as "low-LPC" leaders and that he proposed that low-LPC leaders are most effective in very favorable and very unfavorable situations. The favorability of the situation is determined by several factors, including the structure of the task (but not the ability of the employees). Additional Information: Fiedler's Contingency (LPC) Theory

Answer 4

Correct Answer is: B Burnout is most suffered by compulsive workaholics who are insecure and unfulfilled in their personal lives. Specifically, burnout victims are not lazy, nor are they fulfilled in their outside lives. Finally, they tend to be in dead-end jobs with little hope for promotion. Knowing these facts (which are reviewed in the Industrial/Organizational section), you could have deduced the correct answer.

Answer 5

Correct Answer is: B Schmuck & Schmuck (2000) define group cohesion as "the relation of individual group members to the group as a whole." Whether or not high levels of group cohesiveness manifests in improved productivity depends in part on how the group is managed. Management supportiveness is one of several variables that moderates the relationship between group cohesiveness and group productivity, with high levels of support being associated with higher levels of productivity and management hostility or indifference being associated with lower productivity.

Answer 6

Correct Answer is: A Process consultation centers on distinguishing and changing obvious behaviors that disrupt the normal social processes of a job. A distinctive feature of process consultation is its assertion that behavior change is the main concern and precedes attitude change. Additional Information: Process Consultation

Answer 7

Correct Answer is: B A distinction is made between formative and summative evaluation in the literature on evaluation. Formative evaluations are conducted during the delivery of the intervention to identify ways to improve it. summative evaluation Summative evaluations are conducted at the end of the intervention to evaluate its effectiveness and participants' reactions to it. utility analysis Whereas the utility analysis summarizes and identifies key variables that describe the consequences of HR programs. needs analysis A needs analysis is the first step in developing a training program. It is conducted prior to developing an intervention to determine what the intervention should include. Additional Information: Program Evaluation

Answer 8

Correct Answer is: B Centralized communication networks, where all communication passes through one position or person, have been shown to be more efficient when tasks are mundane and simple. Formal communication networks where information moves between many positions or people (decentralized communication networks) work best with complex and/or collaborative job tasks. Research indicates decentralized networks also result in more individual satisfaction. Additional Information: Communication Networks

Answer 9

Correct Answer is: B According to Locke's 1970 goal-setting theory, goals serve two purposes-they are a basis for motivation and they direct behavior. Goal attainment is maximized when goals are specific and moderately difficult and when frequent feedback about progress toward goal achievement is provided. Goal-setting theory proposes that, when people accept goals, they intend to achieve them and, therefore, are willing to put forth the effort to do so. learn as many words as possible. take it easy and not worry about specific number of words. These two responses are too vague. apply pressure on themselves to learn 20 words a day. This choice is excessively difficult. Additional Information: Goal-Setting Theory

Answer 10

Correct Answer is: D A number of special types of rating scales designed to reduce rater bias (such as the forced-choice and the Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales) have been derived, and, in fact, there is some research to show that they are effective in doing so. However, no rating scale will be effective unless raters are trained adequately in its use. Indeed, research shows that relevant training can minimize some rating errors -- specifically, the halo effect, constant error such as the leniency or strictness bias, and contrast effects. The operative word here is "relevant": unless training focuses on matters such as the multi-dimensionality of work performance, objective recording of behavior, and rating people in terms of actual job requirements, training the raters won't work. Additional Information: Rater Biases

Answer 11

Correct Answer is: C Acceptance of goals is paramount importance goal-setting theory. Acceptance is the critical factor: A person must consciously accept the goals and intend to achieve them. organizational goals are only achieved when they are consistent with a person's self-concept. Self-efficacy beliefs and consistency with one's self-concept are not goal-setting theory principles. participation is necessary to ensure commitment to goals. Participation in goals may increase one's acceptance and intentions, but it is not considered required. Additional Information: Goal-Setting Theory

Answer 12

Correct Answer is: D A needs assessment involves identifying the needs of the organization. A needs assessment is often conducted to determine which employees need training and what should be included in that training. describe the requirements of a job This choice describes the purpose of a job analysis, which is to describe the requirements of a job. determine the relative worth of a job This describes the purpose of a job evaluation, which is to determine the salary levels of jobs. Additional Information: Needs Analysis

Answer 13

Correct Answer is: D The Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA) does not consider individuals who are "currently engaging in the illegal use of drugs" as suffering from a disability on that basis. In other words, it does not protect current drug users. However, it does protect past substance addicts -- as long as the individual is currently participating in or has completed a supervised rehabilitation program, and the person is not currently using drugs. In regard to drug testing, the act does not identify any circumstances in which drug testing is prohibited. In fact, even though it protects former substance addicts, the Act permits employers to use "reasonable means" -- including drug tests -- to verify that such persons are no longer using substances. Additional Information: Americans with Disabilities Act

Answer 14

Correct Answer is: D Information on a test's incremental validity for differing combinations of base rates, selection ratios, and validity coefficients is provided by the Taylor-Russell tables. Decision-making accuracy can improve on a test with a low or moderate validity coefficient when the selection ratio is low (e.g., .05) and the base rate is moderate (near .50). Additional Information: Incremental Validity

Answer 15

Correct Answer is: A A meta-analysis by Baltes and colleagues found that the compressed workweek (increasing the number of hours per day and decreasing the number of days worked in a given work period) did not have a strong impact on absenteeism or objective measures of job performance. However, compressed workweek schedules were found to have positive effects on supervisor ratings of employee performance, employee overall job satisfaction, and employee satisfaction with the work schedule [B. B. Baltes et al., (1999). Flexible and compressed workweek schedules: A meta-analysis of their effects on work, Journal of Applied Psychology, 84(4), 496-513]. Earlier conclusions about the effects of the four-day (compressed) workweek have not been completely consistent with the findings from this meta-analysis. Additional Information: Compressed Work Week

Answer 16

Correct Answer is: D Gainsharing and profit-sharing are the most common group and organization-wide incentive plans used in organizations. The studies have found that they are associated with increased productivity, especially gainsharing which more closely links bonuses to individual and group performance.

Answer 17

Correct Answer is: D Utility analysis was introduced as a method for evaluating the organizational benefits of using systematic procedures (e.g., proficiency tests) to improve personnel selection but has been extended to evaluating any intervention that attempts to improve human performance. It is a quantitative method that estimates the dollar value of benefits generated by an intervention based on the improvement it produces in worker productivity. Utility analysis provides management with information that can be used to evaluate the financial impact of an intervention, including computing a return on their investment in implementing it. Additional Information: Utility Analysis

Answer 18

Correct Answer is: D The focus of consultee-centered consultation is on the consultee's knowledge, skill, and objectivity in order to improve their effectiveness in working with members of a specific population. In client-centered consultation*, the focus is on a specific client, rather than an entire group. Advocacy consultants* act as advocates for a disenfranchised group. Process consultants* focus on communication patterns and conflict resolution among co-workers (* incorrect options). The term "theme interference" is useful to know, although it is not really key to answering this question. Theme interference occurs when a worker displaces past or present personal problems onto a situation at work. It is thus, analogous to transferance in psychotherapy. Additional Information: Mental Health Consultation (Caplan)

Answer 19

Correct Answer is: B According to Herzberg's two-factor theory, need satisfiers can be divided into two types: hygiene factors and motivators. The absence of hygiene factors (e.g., money, security) results in dissatisfaction; however, their presence does not lead to satisfaction. By contrast, the presence of motivators (e.g., responsibility, power, self-esteem) results in satisfaction; however, their absence does not lead to dissatisfaction. Therefore, to increase a worker's motivation, one would have to add factors such as responsibility to his or her job. Increased money or security will reduce any dissatisfaction, but will not increase motivation or satisfaction. Additional Information: Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

Answer 20

Correct Answer is: A Gottfredson's (1981; 1996; 2002) theory of circumscription and compromise addresses about how gender and prestige influence and limit career choice. The theory proposes four stages of cognitive development including: orientation to size and power; orientation to sex roles; influence of social class; introspection and perceptiveness and that the expression of occupational aspirations emerges as a process of elimination or is the outcome of the competing processes of circumscription and compromise. Circumscription refers to the progressive elimination of least preferred options or alternatives that occurs as children become increasingly aware of occupational differences in gender or sex-type, prestige, and then field of work. Compromise refers to the expansion of preferences in recognition of and accommodation to external constraints (e.g., level of effort required, accessibility, cost) encountered in implementing preferences. (See: Gottfredson, L. S. (1981). Circumscription and compromise: a developmental theory of occupational aspirations. Journal of Counseling Psychology Monograph, 28(No. 6, November), 545-579.) Gottfredson, L. S. (2002). Gottfredson's theory of circumscription, compromise, and self creation. In D. Brown (Ed.), Career Choice and Development (4th ed., pp. 85-148). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.) Super's theory proposed a five stage model of career development wherein people achieve job satisfaction when they are able to express themselves and develop their self-concept through their work roles. Krumboltz's Social Learning Theory of Career Decision Making (SLTCDM) includes four types of influences on making career decisions: genetic characteristics and special abilities; environmental conditions and events; learning experiences; performance standards and values. Social learning influences can be positive or negative factors. Meichenbaum is associated with cognitive-behavioral therapy. Additional Information: Gottfredson's Theory of Circumscription and Compromise

Answer 21

Correct Answer is: C A compressed work week requires employees to work fewer days but more hours per day. Research on the effects of the compressed work week is mixed; however, most research has found that productivity is not affected, except for physically demanding jobs, in which case, it decreases. Satisfaction is usually increased and absenteeism usually declines, especially among younger, lower-level employees, and men. Additional Information: Compressed Work Week

Answer 22

Correct Answer is: D Donald Kirkpatrick's (1959, 1998) model for evaluating training and learning programs includes four levels: reaction, learning, behavior and result. Each level of evaluation is used to assess the effectiveness of training programs and the effects of the training on the employees. Level 1 ("reaction") evaluations focus on the individual's response to the training or intervention. Level 2 ("learning") measures what has been learned, often using pre/post-tests or end-of-course tests. Level 3 evaluations assess the impact of the intervention on the individual's behavior or performance in the workplace and level 4 ("results") measure the impact of training on the organization's results. (See: Kirkpatrick, D.L. (1998). Evaluating Training Programs: The Four Levels (3rd ed.). San Francisco, California: Berrett-Koehler.) Return on investment (ROI), is a "level 5" evaluation, proposed by Jack Phillips, used to calculate the return on investment of an intervention or training. Phillips' Five Level ROI is an expansion of Kirkpatrick's model and encourages ROI evaluations for each of the first four levels. (See: Phillips, J.J. (2000). Return on investment in training and performance improvement programs. Woburn, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.) Additional Information: Program Evaluation

Answer 23

Correct Answer is: C TQM is an organizational philosophy that focuses on maximizing customer service and satisfaction. An important characteristic of TQM is its involvement of employees in all aspects of decision-making, and failures are often due to management's unwillingness to do this. Additional Information: Total Quality Management

Answer 24

Correct Answer is: B McGregor's (1960) Theory X and Theory Y management theories reflect the key differences between the scientific management and human relations administrative models. The scientific management model assumes workers are primarily motivated by financial self-interest or pay; job demands must match workers' skills; and workers need constant supervision and detailed guidelines as they are incapable of self-regulating or assuming personal responsibility. Theory X is similar to scientific management in that Theory X managers believe that workers dislike work and avoid it whenever possible, thus workers must be directed and controlled. Theory X advises managers to be very strict, closely monitor employee performance, diligently enforce policies and procedures, and carefully match employees to jobs. A military drill sergeant would be an example of this approach to management. In contrast, Theory Y's* management approach is based on the assumptions that workers are not naturally passive or lazy, they enjoy autonomy, and are willing to accept responsibility. Theory Y advises managers to smile, to treat workers with respect, to bend some of the rules to get the job done, and to be easy-going in their management styles. While Theory X and Y talk about workers from the perspective of how to manage them, Theory Z* examines how workers contribute and proposes that workers naturally wish to cooperate and are loyal to the organization. McClelland's three needs*, or Learned, theory proposes individuals learn needs from their culture and when one of these needs is strong in an individual, then it has the potential to motivate behavior that leads to its satisfaction (* incorrect choices). The theory's three primary needs are: the need for affiliation (n Aff), which is a desire to establish social relationships with others; the need for power (n Pow), or a desire to control one's environment and influence others; and the need for achievement (n Ach) or a desire to take responsibility, set challenging goals, and obtain performance feedback. Additional Information: Theory X vs. Theory Y Leaders

Answer 25

Correct Answer is: C French and Raven identified six categories of power, which reflect the sources of influence upon which the power holder relies. Even if you were familiar with these categories, this question may have been difficult to answer, because all four of the choices could have been operating here. The way to choose the best answer is to work with the information you have at hand and not to add your own inferences to the question. Legitimate power refers to formal authority delegated to the individual in the form of rank, title, decree, etc. This question indicates that the requester is a high-ranking executive; i.e., he has a title and the formal authority and right to exercise power within the organization. Therefore, based on the available information, legitimate power is the best answer. Coercive power stems from the ability of the power-holder to punish others. Reward power arises from the ability to reward others. Referent power is based on personal qualities, and operates to the degree others identify with the power holder. As noted, all three of these power bases could have been at work here: the employee may have feared that the executive would fire him or otherwise punish him if he didn't work overtime; he may have thought the executive would give him a raise or reward him some other way if he did work overtime; or he may have accepted the request out of admiration for or loyalty to the executive. However, the question does not explicitly refer to any of these scenarios. The only source of power that is obvious--due to the wording that the request comes from a "high ranking executive"--is legitimate power. The other two sources of power are expert power, which stems from a belief that the power holder has specialized knowledge or expertise, and informational power, which stems from the ability to control the availability of information. Additional Information: Bases of Social Power

Answer 26

Correct Answer is: B A trainability test is designed to determine whether or not potential employees are suitable for training. It is not designed to be directly predictive of how well the person will do on the job itself. Instead, it would more directly indicate how well the person would do on a job sample, which is likely to be a part of the training sessions. In fact, trainability tests typically include job samples and are described as a type of job sample. Additional Information: Work Samples (Selection Procedures)

Answer 27

Correct Answer is: D Leniency bias is the tendency of a rater to give all ratees positive ratings. Although the Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scale (BARS) may improve rating accuracy over a standard Likert Scale, it is not as effective at reducing biases as a forced-choice method. A forced-choice method consists of pairs of statements about job performance that both appear equally favorable or unfavorable, but the statements in each pair actually differentiate between good and poor performing individuals. Additional Information: Personnel Comparison Systems (Selection Procedures)

Answer 28

Correct Answer is: A A realistic job description is known among industrial/organizational psychologists as a "realistic job preview." It involves providing job applicants with accurate information about the job and the company -- both positive information and negative information. Research on realistic job previews has shown that they are beneficial for reducing turnover. Additional Information: Work Samples (Selection Procedures)

Answer 29

Correct Answer is: C The results of Stajkovic and Luthans' meta-analysis found self-efficacy positively related to work-related performance and that the relationship is moderated by task complexity and situational factors present in work environments. The two moderators appear to weaken the relationship between self-efficacy and work-related performance, with the relationship weakest for the higher levels of task complexity and field settings. Situational factors and organizational practices identified as influences on the relationship between self-efficacy and performance include: accuracy of task descriptions, definitions and circumstances of the tasks; instruction on necessary technical means and how to use them for successful task performance; physical distractions in the work environment; training programs that enhance employees self-efficacy beliefs of what they can do with the skills they already possess; developing effective behavioral and cognitive coping strategies, becoming more task-diagnostic, conceptualizing ability as an incremental skill; timing of program implementation; clarity and objectivity of performance standards; and personal consequences contingent on performance. (See: Stajkovic, A. D., & Luthans, F. (1998). Self-efficacy and work-related performances: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 240-261.)

Answer 30

Correct Answer is: B Holland's six occupational themes represent both personality and environment types. According to Holland, job satisfaction, productivity, and other behaviors are affected by the congruence or fit between a person's personality and the nature of the work environment. Additional Information: Holland's Personality and Environment Typology

Answer 31

Correct Answer is: C Fiedler's Contingency Model states leaders have a dominant leadership style that is resistant to change and distinguishes between two types of leaders - high LPC leaders (person-oriented, more focused on maintaining good interpersonal relationships) and low LPC leaders (task-oriented, more focused on successful task performance). Changes in the structure of the situation can improve the chances of success as the leader's success is contingent on the situation, task to be completed, leader's style or personality, and the maturity of the group. Fielder proposes task-oriented (low-LPC) leaders are most effective when the leader has either low or high situational control and person-oriented (high-LPC leaders) are most effective when situational control is moderate. According to Fielder, situational control is determined by: leader-member relations, task-structure, and leader position power. Additional Information: Fiedler's Contingency (LPC) Theory

Answer 32

Correct Answer is: D The relationship between age and satisfaction actually depends on what aspect of satisfaction you're measuring. However, the question refers to global satisfaction, and the research has found that higher levels of global job satisfaction are associated with older age and vice versa. Additional Information: Job Satisfaction

Answer 33

Correct Answer is: B Multiple hurdles approach requires applicants to score above a specific level or pass several measures one at a time. The usefulness of the multiple hurdles technique is maximized by administering the predictors in a logical order (e.g., from least to most difficult or least to most expensive). Additional Information: Combining Predictors

Answer 34

Correct Answer is: B Herbert Simon earned a Nobel Prize in economics, but was also known for his theories in psychology, computer science (artificial intelligence), and administration. The one thread through all of his work was his interest in decision-making and problem solving. His "administrative" model maintains that decision-makers cannot always afford to be rational, instead, they must choose the first solution that is minimally acceptable or "satisficing." This is in contrast to another decision making theory, the "rational-economic model" in which decision-makers attempt to find the optimal solution to a problem. Additional Information: Individual Decision-Making

Answer 35

Correct Answer is: A Research on the validity of selection measures generally finds the cognitive ability tests and biodata are 1-2 in terms of predictive validity. Although validity coefficients will vary from study to study, the most widely accepted conclusion is that general ability tests are the best overall predictors. Additional Information: General Mental Ability (Selection Procedures)

Answer 36

Correct Answer is: A Studies show when jobs are redesigned according to the job characteristics model there are improvements in satisfaction, absenteeism, turnover, and motivation. Work quality is less likely to be affected. Additional Information: The Job Characteristics Model

Answer 37

Correct Answer is: B Validity generalization, or generalized evidence of validity, is evidence of validity that generalizes to setting(s) other than the setting(s) in which the original validation evidence was documented and is accumulated through strategies such as synthetic validity/job component validity*, transportability* and meta-analysis* (* incorrect choices). Synthetic validity/job component validity is based on previous demonstration of the validity of inferences from scores on the selection procedure or battery with respect to one or more domains of work (job components). Transportability refers to a strategy for generalizing evidence of validity in which demonstration of important similarities between different work settings is used to infer that validation evidence for a selection procedure accumulated in one work setting generalizes to another work setting.

Answer 38

Correct Answer is: A Donald Super developed a comprehensive theory of vocational development. According to the theory, individuals choose occupations that are consistent with their self-concept, which develops in a predictable sequence of stages. Job satisfaction and life satisfaction are both a function of the degree to which one's activities are consistent with the self-concept. Additional Information: Super's Career and Life Development Theory

Answer 39

Correct Answer is: A Rater biases include the strictness, leniency, central tendency, and halo biases. The other phenomenon listed in the responses are problems in other areas than performance ratings. Additional Information: Rater Biases

Answer 40

Correct Answer is: B Job enrichment involves redesigning a job in order to enable workers to have more challenge, responsibility, decision-making authority, and opportunities for advancement. Although the research findings are mixed, they generally have found that job enrichment leads to increased job satisfaction, decreased absenteeism and turnover, and in some cases, increased job performance in terms of quality rather than quantity. The benefits of job enrichment are greatest among younger, well-educated, employees who have a high need for achievement. Additional Information: Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

Answer 41

Correct Answer is: A Fiedler's Contingency Theory proposed that in terms of a leader's style and the favorableness of a situation, the latter was determined by the degree to which the leader could control and influence their subordinate. Fiedler described a leader's style by his or her scores on his Least Preferred Coworker Scale. A high LPC leader describes their least preferred coworker in positive terms and these leaders are primarily relationship oriented. Note that the question talks about how a leader "treats" their worker rather than how they "describe" the worker. While these are not exactly the same concepts, the EPPP will take these type of liberties so this is an example of choosing an answer that is in the "ballpark". Additional Information: Fiedler's Contingency (LPC) Theory

Answer 42

Correct Answer is: B Rater biases impacts the accuracy of subjective rating scales. When a rater rates all individuals using the middle of a rating scale, he/she is exhibiting the central tendency bias*. When ratings of one individual are affected by ratings given to another then the rater is exhibiting a contrast effect*. Severity error*, also known as strictness error or bias, refers to the rater tendency to rate all individuals using the low end of the rating scale (* incorrect choices). A ceiling effect is not a rater bias, it refers to the measurement instrument's inability to distinguish between individuals who have high levels of what is being assessed by the instrument. Additional Information: Rater Biases

Answer 43

Correct Answer is: A Group cohesiveness has been associated with less absenteeism and turnover and, in some situations, greater productivity. You should have been able to eliminate this option (better decision-making) if you recalled the research on groupthink, which is characterized, in part, by high group cohesiveness, and is associated with poorer quality decisions.

Answer 44

Correct Answer is: A Job enrichment is a motivational technique that involves giving employees increased responsibility, decision-making authority, and autonomy. Job enrichment is designed to reduce boredom, and increase workers' feelings of meaningfulness, responsibility, and competence. It is based on Herzberg's two-factor theory of motivation, which classifies factors that affect job satisfaction into two categories: motivators, which increase satisfaction, and hygiene factors, which prevent dissatisfaction. Motivators are related to intrinsic conditions of the job itself, such as the autonomy and the opportunity for personal growth. In the question, the manager is increasing the responsibility and autonomy of the mechanics, so job enrichment is the best answer. Additional Information: Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

Answer 45

Correct Answer is: A According to Bandura's social learning theory (or theory of observational learning), it is possible to learn a given behavior merely by watching a model perform it. Behavioral practice and reinforcement, though they influence the probability that a behavior will be learned, are not absolutely necessary for the behavior to be imitated. vestibule training Vestibule training involves a simulation of work conditions, although it does not necessarily involve modeling. reinforcement on a variable interval schedule reinforcers tailored to each employee's needs These two choices, which involve reinforcement procedures, can be eliminated. Additional Information: Social Learning Theory

Answer 46

Correct Answer is: D This is the opposite of what is true about organizations that focus on quality where the policy is to emphasize rewarding group performance and organization-level achievement rather than individual achievement (which is characteristic of the traditional approach). The other characteristics listed in the responses are relatively new approaches and are characteristic of "total quality" organizations. Additional Information: Total Quality Management

Answer 47

Correct Answer is: A Using a style approach, the Ohio State leadership studies identified two behavioral dimensions of leaders: initiating structure and consideration. These dimensions were treated as independent of each other in contrast to previous studies of leader behavior which placed related dimensions along a single continuum of leadership ranging from employee to production-centered ("employee-centered and production-centered"). In different models of leadership, the dimension of initiating structure is sometimes referred to as task-orientation and concern for production. The dimension of consideration has also been labeled employee orientation, relations-oriented and concern for people. (See: Stogdill, R. M., and Coons, A. E. (Eds.). (1957). Leader behavior: Its description and measurement. Columbus, OH: Bureau of Business Research, Ohio State University.) Additional Information: Consideration and Initiating Structure

Answer 48

Correct Answer is: D In 1951, Kurt Lewin and his colleagues conducted a study assessing the effectiveness of three different leadership styles: authoritarian, where the leader remains aloof and uses orders to direct the group's behavior; democratic, where the leader actively encourages group members and participates in their activities; and laissez-faire, where the leader provides knowledge but does not direct or participate in activities. The subjects were 10-year-old boys participating in an arts and crafts club. A key finding was that the laissez-faire style was the least successful, resulting in significantly lower quality and quantity of work as compared to the other two styles. Other findings were that groups with democratic leaders produced the highest quality of work and its members were the most satisfied, and that autocratically led groups produced the highest quantity of work. Some children did prefer the autocratic style, so choice 3 would have been a better answer if laissez-faire was not included--laissez-faire style is not successful regardless of the personality of the group members. Additional Information: Autocratic, Democratic, vs. Laissez-Faire Leaders

Answer 49

Correct Answer is: B Of the theories listed in the responses, only one -- equity theory -- predicts that worker motivation is related to the comparisons we make between our own situation and that of others. Additional Information: Equity Theory

Answer 50

Correct Answer is: C The term "job evaluation" refers to procedures used within a workplace to establish the relative worth of particular jobs and tasks within the organization. If a job evaluation were biased against work typically performed by women, this would mean that the value of such work to the organization would be unfairly set too low. The term "comparable worth" refers to the standard that wages for jobs with different titles and/or duties should be based on their actual worth to the organization rather then the gender makeup of the workers in those jobs. In other words, a gender biased job evaluation would contradict the standard of comparable worth. Regarding the other choices, employment equity refers to multidimensional efforts to promote fair representation of minority groups in the workplace--not only through hiring practices but also through retention, promotion, and training efforts. Procedural justice refers to perceptions of fairness in the processes that resolve disputes and allocate resources. It is not as good an answer as comparable worth because it usually refers to perceptions rather than actual practice and because comparable worth refers specifically to the undervaluation of tasks that women typically perform. A bias in a job evaluation method relates more to distributive justice, or fairness in outcomes, because a job evaluation is typically used to establish salary. And "job fairness" is a broad term that generally means that distribution of workplace rewards, such as salaries and selection for jobs, is based on merit rather than some form of bias. Additional Information: Gender Issues in Organizations

Answer 51

Correct Answer is: A As its name implies, work-family conflict occurs when role expectations and demands at work and at home are incompatible. Work-family conflict is affected by several factors including the extent of involvement in work and family roles and the degree to which boundaries between work and family roles are permeable. Additional Information: Work-Family Conflict

Answer 52

Correct Answer is: A Research suggests that high levels of work-family conflict are related to negative outcomes for the individual (life dissatisfaction, anxiety, poor health), for relationships (increased interpersonal conflict, divorce), and for the organization (absenteeism, tardiness, loss of talented employees). Work-family conflict can be time-based, strain-based, or behavior-based. Time-based conflict, which occurs when role pressures stemming from the two different domains compete for the individual's time, is the most common type of work-family conflict. It is based on the scarcity hypothesis, that the sum of a person's energy is fixed; therefore multiple roles inevitably reduces the time and energy available to meet all role demands, resulting in strain and work-family conflict. Much of the research on work-family conflict has been based on this premise proposed by role theory and role scarcity. Work-family conflict is bi-directional; work can interfere with family and family can interfere with work. These are referred to as work-to-family conflict and family-to-work conflict. Recent research, based on the enhancement theory, suggests quality multiple roles provide additional sources of social support, increased skills, and heightened self-esteem and well being. Evidence of positive spillover, both from work to home and from home to work, continues to be found. Strain-based conflict occurs when the strain experienced in one role domain interferes with effective performance of role behaviors in the other domain. Behavior-based conflict is described as conflict stemming from incompatible behaviors demanded by competing roles. Recent research, using a systems perspective, demonstrates that one member of a dyad can impact the other's experience of work-family conflict. The effects of this work and family stress and strain are referred to as "crossover effects." (See: Barnett, R. C. and Hyde, J. S. (2001) Women, men, work, and family: An expansionist theory. American Psychologist, 56(10), 781-796.)

Answer 53

Correct Answer is: B Flextime allows the employees to make their own schedule, as long as they work the required number of hours and as long as they are present for the pre-defined "core" hours" (e.g., 10 a.m. to 2 p.m.). As you might expect, research shows that flextime is associated with increased job satisfaction, better attitudes toward the job and the work environment, and less worker stress. Additional Information: Flextime

Answer 54

Correct Answer is: D According to Holland (1997), differentiation is defined as the level of definition or distinctness of a profile and can be thought of as the difference between an individual's highest and lowest summary scale score on the SDS. A highly differentiated profile would only have a high point code on one of the six types. Profile elevation is the sum of the six section scores on the instrument, so ("all six section scores on the instrument are high") would be an example of high profile elevation. Additional Information: Holland's Personality and Environment Typology

Answer 55

Correct Answer is: C Criterion contamination occurs when a rater knows how a ratee did on a predictor test, and this knowledge affects the rating. For example, if an employee obtained a very high score on the post-training test and the supervisor knows this, the supervisor's ratings of the employee's on-the-job performance might be biased upward. To prevent criterion contamination, the rater should have no knowledge of the ratees' predictor scores. Contrast effect* refers to the tendency to give ratings on the basis of comparisons to other ratees. There is no indication that there is a restricted range of scores*, and if there was, that would reduce the correlation between the predictor and criterion scores. Demand characteristics* are cues in the environment that inform research participants what behaviors are expected of them (* incorrect options). Additional Information: Criterion Contamination

Answer 56

Correct Answer is: C Holland's theory categorizes individuals based on their resemblance to six personality types: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional (you can remember the sequence as "RIASEC" ). The personality types reflect a person's primary interest, or an environment's primary characteristic; for example, the investigative type enjoys working alone and solving complex problems; likes dealing with ideas more than people or things and has math or scientific abilities. There is overlap between the types, with some overlapping more than others. For example, the investigative type is more similar to the realistic and artistic*, and less similar to the enterprising, conventional* and social* types (* incorrect choices). Additional Information: Holland's Personality and Environment Typology

Answer 57

Correct Answer is: D Summarizing the predictive validity of interviews and other selection techniques in a meta-analysis of the research, Schmidt and Hunter (1998) report measures of general mental ability are the most valid predictors across different jobs. For structured and unstructured interviews, they note corrected validity coefficients of .51 and .38, respectively. When an interview is combined with another selection procedure, especially a general mental ability test, the predictive validity of interviews is increased (See: Schmidt & Hunter. (1998). The validity and utility of selection measures in personnel psychology: Practical and theoretical implications of 85 years of research findings, Psychological Bulletin, 124(2), 262-274). Additional Information: Interviews (Selection Procedures)

Answer 58

Correct Answer is: C Although this question appears to be about learning and memory, the answer is probably best addressed in I/O's Goal Setting Theory. According to goal-setting theory, goals are best attained when the goals are specific and moderately difficult. and tell them to take it easy and not worry about it tell them to learn as many words as they can These two choices are too vague. put pressure on them and tell them to learn 20 words a day This is excessively difficult. Additional Information: Goal-Setting Theory

Answer 59

Correct Answer is: B McGregor's (1960) Theory X and Theory Y management theories reflect the key differences between the scientific management and human relations administrative models. Managers adopting a scientific management model assume that workers are motivated primarily by financial self-interest (i.e., pay is the most effective motivator); that job demands must match workers' skills; and that workers need detailed guidelines and constant supervision because they are incapable of regulating themselves or assuming responsibility on their own. Theory X is similar to scientific management: Theory X managers believe that workers dislike work and avoid it whenever possible; therefore, workers must be directed and controlled.

Answer 60

Correct Answer is: C Miller-Tiedeman and Tiedeman defined personal authoritative reality as what feels right to the individual and common reality as what the individual is told they should do. This was an expansion on Tiedeman and O'Hare's Decision Making Model. The other responses also represent stage theories of career choice. Ginzberg's theory contains three periods (fantasy, tentative, and realistic) with sub-stages corresponding to ages preteen through the early 20's. (See: Ginzberg, E., Ginzberg, S.W., Axelrad, S., & Herman, J.L. (1951). Occupational Choice: an approach to a general theory. New York: Columbia University Press; Ginzberg, E. (1972). Toward a theory of occupational choice: A restatement. Vocational Guidance Quarterly, 20, 169-176.) Super's stages continue across the life-span. In Gottfredson's theory, there are four stages of cognitive development: orientation to size and power; orientation to sex roles; influence of social class; introspection and perceptiveness. The first stage typically begins around age 3 and the last in mid-adolescence. The theory addresses how gender and prestige influence and limit career choice. (See: Gottfredson, L.S. (1981). Circumscription and compromise: A developmental theory of occupational aspirations. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 28, 545-579.) Additional Information: Miller-Tiedeman and Tiedeman's Decision Making Model

Answer 61

Correct Answer is: C Bloom (1972) noted that program evaluation (also known as evaluation research) entails the following four sequential steps: 1) specifying the program's objectives and goals; 2) defining the relevant parameters (e.g., the target population, the criteria used to define the target behavior, the criteria used to determine whether the program's goals have been met); 3) specifying the techniques and procedures used to achieve the program's goals; and 4) collecting the relevant data. If you didn't know this, you probably could have deduced that it would be hard to evaluate a program unless you first knew what its goals were.

Answer 62

Correct Answer is: C The doctrine of comparable worth states that workers (in particular, men and women) should get equal pay for performing jobs that have equivalent worth. A job evaluation is a method of determining the worth or value of jobs in an organization. Thus, it is the best answer to this question, because it would be a way of comparing the value of different jobs. Note that many critics believe that current methods of job evaluation contain inherent gender biases. Statistics clearly show that women earn less than men, and some believe that one reason for this is that job evaluation methods undervalue the work that women perform. Additional Information: Gender Issues in Organizations

Answer 63

Correct Answer is: B According to the Americans with Disabilities Act and the Federal Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures, business necessity and job relatedness are conditions that may permit the use of a selection or other employment procedure that results in an adverse impact. If an employer can demonstrate that it is job related and a business necessity, despite having adverse impact, the employer may be able to continue using the procedure. Additional Information: Adverse Impact

Answer 64

Correct Answer is: D Tiedeman and O'Hara based their career development model on Erikson's psychosocial theory of ego identity development. They proposed that a person develops a vocational identity through a process of many differentiations and reintegrations throughout one's lifespan. Differentiation comes from the realization that a particular career does not "fit" with one's personality. Integration involves identification with a career. Additional Information: Tiedeman and O'Hare's Decision Making Model

Answer 65

Correct Answer is: B A "needs assessment" or "needs analysis" is the first step in developing a training program. Not surprisingly, this involves identifying the needs of the organization. Additional Information: Needs Analysis

Answer 66

Correct Answer is: B Dawis and Lofquist's (1964) model of career development, Theory of Work Adjustment (TWA), centers on the connection between a worker and his/her job and work environment. A key element of the theory is that an individual is best suited for positions that have matching demands and rewards to his/her individual characteristics. According to the TWA, satisfaction and satisfactoriness are factors related to job tenure. Satisfaction, in this theory, refers to a worker's satisfaction with the job. This is established by the degree to which the worker's needs are satisfied by the provided rewards of the job. Satisfactoriness, on the other hand, refers to the organization or employer's satisfaction with the worker. For example, how well the worker's skills fulfill the requirements of the job and is able to perform the job. Additional Information: Theory of Work Adjustment

Answer 67

Correct Answer is: C The term "positive" refers to individuals selected or hired and "negative" to those who are not. "True" refers to a correct decision and "false" refers to an incorrect decision. When a predictor cutoff is lowered, more people are selected overall, or there are more positives. Since the predictor criterion is lower there are more true and false positives. Therefore, the probability that those hired will be successful (true positives) decreases and the probability of unsuccessful hiring (false positives) increases. Additional Information: Decision-Making

Answer 68

Correct Answer is: B The research on job commitment, or the degree to which a person identifies with an organization and is willing to work to help the organization reach its goals, suggests that it has a moderate to strong negative correlation with absenteeism and turnover. In this respect, it is similar to job satisfaction, which also is more highly correlated with absenteeism and turnover than with other variables (such as productivity) typically studied in the organizational psychology literature. Additional Information: Organizational Commitment

Answer 69

Correct Answer is: D As you can imagine, what people do (or don't do) is the leading cause of industrial accidents. Not paying attention, daydreaming, not fixing the machine correctly, not training properly, etc., all can lead to accidents. It follows that to correct this problem one would want people trained better and one would want an environment in which attention is paid to possible accident-causing conditions. Additional Information: Safety and Accidents

Answer 70

Correct Answer is: B In his recent writings, Super depicts various aspects of his theory of career development with illustrations. His "life career rainbow" depicts nine major life roles (e.g., student, parent, spouse) that have an impact on a person's career choice. Additional Information: Super's Career and Life Development Theory

Answer 71

Correct Answer is: D Hershey and Blanchard's Situational Leadership Theory holds that there are four leadership styles, and leaders should be flexible enough to adopt the one that applies best to the situation, based on the developmental or maturity level of the followers. At the lowest maturity levels, where followers cannot do the job and are unwilling or afraid to try, the leader should adopt a highly directive style called Telling / Directing. At the next lowest level, followers have variable competence, and are willing to do the job; the appropriate leadership style in this case is Selling / Coaching. Workers at the second highest developmental level can do the job but are uncommitted or unmotivated; here, a Participating / Supporting style is recommended. Finally, the least directive style of leadership, Delegating / Observing, is recommended for workers at the highest maturity levels--those who are competent and motivated to perform. Additional Information: Hersey and Blanchard's Situational Leadership Model

Answer 72

Correct Answer is: A Cognitive tests are the most valid predictors of job performance across jobs and settings and job performance would include job continuity. However, biodata is particularily useful for predicting turnover. In the specific area of predicting turnover, biodata has been found to have validity coefficients of .77 and .79 for predicting the turnover of whites and African-Americans respectively (Cascio 1976). Hunter and Hunter (1984) report an average validity coefficient of .53 when cognitive tests are used to predict performance ratings and .75 when they are used to predict performance on a work sample. Additional Information: Biographical Information

Answer 73

Correct Answer is: D In general, humans are better than machines at tasks that require flexibility, such as recognizing patterns that vary from situation to situation. Machines are better at tasks that require consistency or reliability, such as those described by the other choices. Additional Information: Person-Machines Systems

Answer 74

Correct Answer is: C It isn't clear from the question what would be wrong with multiple regression in this situation. the characteristics assessed by the four measures are noncompensatory; i.e., a low score on one measure cannot be compensated for by a high score on another measure. However, by process of elimination, only this response is correct. the characteristics assessed by the four measures are compensatory; i.e., a low score on one measure can be compensated for by a high score on another measure. This response is incorrect because multiple regression is compensatory and would be appropriate if a high score on one measure could compensate for a low score on another measure. Multiple regression isn't the appropriate technique when the characteristics measured by the different predictors are noncompensatory. multiple regression is used only when the criterion includes three or more orthogonal categories. multiple regression is used only when there are two or more criteria that are each measured on a continuous scale. These two options aren't true about multiple regression. Additional Information: Combining Predictors

Answer 75

Correct Answer is: C The term "organizational development" (OD) refers to a planned, organization-wide effort, managed from the top-down, designed to improve organizational health and effectiveness by applying behavioral science knowledge. It is distinct from other industrial-organizational interventions in that the target of intervention is an entire organization (or entire work group within an organization), as opposed to an individual unit such as an employee or job. There are a number of intervention strategies associated with OD, including team building, process consultation, and survey feedback. Team building is designed to improve the problem-solving abilities of goal-oriented work groups. It can involve a variety of exercises, activities, and games. The specific goals of the technique include increasing motivation, increasing team cohesiveness, reducing interpersonal conflict and, clarifying team members' roles. reducing role ambiguity or role confusion in work groups. Thus, of the choices listed, only the correct answer identifies a specific goal of team building. increasing the morale of an entire organization. You may have thought this choice was a good answer, and team building exercises do often have a positive effect on morale. However, increasing morale is usually not identified as a specific goal of team building. Additional Information: Phases of Organizational Development

Answer 76

Correct Answer is: D Krumboltz's Social Learning Theory of Career Decision Making (SLTCDM) includes four types of influences on making career decisions: genetic characteristics and special abilities; environmental conditions and events; learning experiences; and performance standards and values. Social learning influences can be positive or negative factors. (See: Krumboltz, J. D., Mitchell, A. M., & Jones, G. B. (1976). A social learning theory of career selection. Counseling Psychologist, 61, 71-81.) Holland's theory states career choices are an expression of personality. Super's is a developmental or stage theory. Herzberg's two-factor theory addresses worker motivation and satisfaction, not career choices. Additional Information: Krumboltz's Social Learning Theory of Career Decision Making

Answer 77

Correct Answer is: C The Big Five personality traits: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism ("OCEAN") have been matched with several of the personality disorders. Antisocial Personality Disorder was found to be associated with low scores in Agreeableness and Conscientiousness and generally higher scores in Neuroticism and Extroversion. Note that "neuroticism" is sometimes referred to as its opposite: "emotional stability". Additional Information: Antisocial Personality Disorder

Answer 78

Correct Answer is: D In a structured interview, a series of job-related questions with predetermined "correct" answers are used consistently with all interviewees for a particular job. An advantage of this technique is the provision of individual item scores and a total score that are derived from prespecified criteria. To predict job performance, the interview score can then be combined with scores on other selection procedures in a multiple regression equation or similar technique. Another advantage of the structured interview is that it reduces the impact of interviewer subjectivity*. A utility analysis* considers the procedure's validity coefficient, employee job performance variability (typically in dollar value of output or mean output), and the selection ratio to evaluate the practical value of a selection procedure. Subject matter experts* are one of several methods for determining scores to responses to a structured interview (* incorrect choices). Additional Information: Interviews (Selection Procedures)

Answer 79

Correct Answer is: C This questions is about Holland's six personality types -- realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional. One's results on the Strong Interest Inventory include a 3-letter personality type that indicates, in order, which three types best describe the individual. Individuals in the mental health professions typically obtain a 3-letter code of social, enterprising, and artistic (SEA); if you knew this, you knew enough to answer the question. If you didn't, the question helped you out by telling you that the psychologist likes to work hands-on with clients (which would be characteristic of the social type) and that she is interested in promotions and pay raises (which would be characteristic of the enterprising type). Additional Information: Holland's Personality and Environment Typology

Answer 80

Correct Answer is: A Krumbholtz's social learning theory views learned experiences as the most important factors in career choice and preference, though it does acknowledge the role of other factors such as innate abilities and environmental events. According to the theory, generalizations about one's self and the world, called self-observation generalizations and world-view generalizations respectively, play a direct role in career choice. For example, the self-observation generalization that one is very good at logical reasoning, and the world-view generalization that jobs in computer programming will pay more than other jobs in the future might lead one to pursue a career in computer programming. Regarding the other choices, lifespan developmental stage is correlated to career behavior in Donald Super's theory of vocational choice, and John Holland developed a personality typology which links career choice and personality type. Outcome expectations could certainly be an example of a self-observation and world-view generalization, but the first choice is better because it names specific theoretical constructs associated with Krumbholtz's theory. Additional Information: Krumboltz's Social Learning Theory of Career Decision Making

Answer 81

Correct Answer is: A Meta-analyses of the research on the validity of various selection techniques has looked at the relationship between different predictors and different outcome measures. Of the various commonly-used predictors, biographical information has the highest correlation with turnover. Additional Information: Biographical Information

Answer 82

Correct Answer is: C Holland classified six personality types and occupational environments, and proposed that the closer the match, or "congruence" between them, the more likely the person will be satisfied, productive, and will stay in that environment. person's unconscious occupational abilities Contrary to this option, Holland's personality types are based on self-perceived (not unconscious) abilities and interests. one occupation the person is capable of performing This is incorrect because Holland's typology indicates more than one occupation the person might be capable of performing. Additional Information: Holland's Personality and Environment Typology

Answer 83

Correct Answer is: C Expectancy theory is based on the premise that motivation is a cognitive process involving three variables: expectancy, instrumentality and valence. Expectancy refers to the belief that effort will lead to success performance. Instrumentality refers to the beliefs that successful performance will result in certain outcomes; the value placed on the outcomes of performance is referred to as valence.

Answer 84

Correct Answer is: C Criterion deficiency refers to what is missed or deficient in the criterion used. For example, if typing speed is used as the sole criterion for determining successful job performance by a secretary, it would be a deficient criterion, since typing speed is only one of several skills needed to be a successful secretary. Differential validity refers to a test which has significantly different validity coefficients for different subgroups. Criterion contamination occurs when a rater's knowledge of an employee's performance on a predictor biases how the employee is rated on a criterion.

Answer 85

Correct Answer is: B There is some evidence that interviewers place less importance on interview information when biodata is not very favorable and more importance when it is supportive of a hiring decision. Apparently, a good interview cannot make up for a bad history, but a good history can be supported or canceled out by the results of the interview. Additional Information: Biographical Information

Answer 86

Correct Answer is: C Transactional leadership, in its simplest form, is leadership by contingent reinforcement. The leaders' rewards, promises and/or threats of disciplinary actions or punishments motivate the followers. In constructive transactions, the leader may participate in discussing what is to be done in exchange for implicit or explicit rewards and the allocation of desired resources, or they give out assignments, negotiate or contract with followers. The actions of the leader are contingent on whether the followers do what they have been "contracted" to do. Leaders that take corrective action with negative feedback or reprimand only after followers' mistakes have been called to their attention are engaging in passive management-by-exception. In corrective transactions* or contingent rewarding*, leaders engage in active management-by-exception* which means they monitor followers' performance and correct their mistakes if and when they occur (* incorrect options). Additional Information: Transformational vs. Transactional Leadership

Answer 87

Correct Answer is: D Organizational transformation is a term for an intervention that is one of the strategies in organizational development. Organizational development (OD) refers to a planned, organization-wide effort designed to improve the organization's effectiveness and targets the organization as a whole rather than an individual unit such as an employee or job. Organizational transformation is a relatively newer method of OD that was developed in response to challenges such as layoffs, mergers, and rapidly changing markets in the corporate world. In organizational transformation, the target of change is the entire organization's vision of its beliefs, purpose, or mission. It attempts to alter the viewpoints of the organization's members. For example, it may involve mission statement changes, consciousness raising, and training exercises designed to help employees shift to an entirely new way of doing business, such as a change to a pay-for-performance pay scale or a new emphasis on vertical rather than horizontal markets. Additional Information: Phases of Organizational Development

Answer 88

Correct Answer is: A Job enrichment is a motivational technique that involves giving employees increased responsibility, decision-making authority, and autonomy. It is based on Herzberg's two-factor theory of motivation, which classifies factors that affect job satisfaction into two categories: motivators, which increase satisfaction, and hygiene factors, which prevent dissatisfaction. Motivators are related to intrinsic conditions of the job itself, such as the autonomy and the opportunity for personal growth. Job enrichment attempts to provide motivators in order to increase satisfaction and ultimately performance. Job enlargement is also an attempt to increase an employee's satisfaction and motivation. It involves increasing the number of tasks an employee performs. The idea is to reduce the level of monotony and boredom; however, research suggests that job enrichment is the more effective technique. Additional Information: Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

Answer 89

Correct Answer is: C Kurt Lewin's process of organizational change involves three stages: unfreezing, changing, and refreezing. data collection, feedback and action planning. Collecting data, providing feedback, and implementing or developing action plans are the three steps of survey feedback. entry, planning and action. In 1980, Huse added several steps to Lewin's model, with entry and planning being added to the unfreezing stage and action was added as the primary step in the changing stage. Additional Information: Lewin's Model of Planned Change

Answer 90

Correct Answer is: B According to Locke's 1970 goal-setting theory, goals serve two purposes they are a basis for motivation and they direct behavior. Goal attainment is maximized when goals are specific and moderately difficult and when frequent feedback about progress toward goal achievement is provided. Additional Information: Goal-Setting Theory

Answer 91

Correct Answer is: D Engineering psychology is concerned with fitting aspects of the job to the worker. The focus is on the total environmental system, including procedures, work environments, and the design and functioning of equipment. Thus, in this situation, an engineering psychologist would most likely focus on the safety of the work environment. Additional Information: Safety and Accidents

Answer 92

Correct Answer is: D The paired comparison technique compares an employee to every other employee on each dimension of job performance. Additional Information: Personnel Comparison Systems (Selection Procedures)

Answer 93

Correct Answer is: C According to expectancy theory, motivation is a function of expectancy, valence, and instrumentality. Instrumentality refers to the degree to which performance leads to certain desired outcomes. In this situation, the man's performance is not leading to promotions and bonuses; as a result, according to the theory, instrumentality and, as a result, motivation, would be lowered. Valence refers to the importance of outcomes that follow from performance. In this situation, valence would be related to how much the man values promotions and bonuses. And expectancy refers to belief that effort will pay off in performance. In this situation, expectancy refers to the man's belief that working hard would lead to good performance on the job. Additional Information: Expectancy Theory

Answer 94

Correct Answer is: C Work samples are good predictors of job success, assuming of course that there is a way to devise an accurate work sample. While interviews and reference letters are the most widely used selection devices, they are not valid predictors by themselves. The popularity of personality tests (particularly personality inventories) has declined, partly due to the non-standardized way they are employed in private industry. They are also not good predictors of job success. Additional Information: Work Samples (Selection Procedures)

Answer 95

Correct Answer is: C One of the most stable findings in job satisfaction research is that age is positively correlated with satisfaction. The older the employee, the higher the level of satisfaction he or she tends to report. Additional Information: Job Satisfaction

Answer 96

Correct Answer is: D A topic of interest in the I/O literature is the difference between leaders and managers. Characteristics that are considered particularly important for leaders include: visionary, creative, flexible, inspiring, courageous, and independent. See G. Capowski, Anatomy of a leader: Where are the leaders of tomorrow?, Management Review, 1994, p. 2.

Answer 97

Correct Answer is: B Biodata is generally considered second to cognitive ability tests in terms of validity for predicting job performance. Although empirically-derived biodata forms are most valid, their questions sometimes lack face validity; i.e., they ask for information that doesn't seem to have anything to do with job performance. This can be a problem because it decreases applicants' motivation to fill out the forms accurately. Additional Information: Biographical Information

Answer 98

Correct Answer is: D Justice Perceptions are employee judgments about whether their work situation is fair and have been found to be related to: job satisfaction, performance, withdrawal and counterproductive behaviors and organizational commitment. Interactional justice focuses on the interpersonal treatment of individuals when procedures are implemented and consists of two components: interpersonal justice, which refers to the degree to which individuals affected by decisions are treated with dignity, respect and politeness by third parties or authorities involved in executing procedures or determining outcomes, and informational justice, which refers to the explanations provided to individuals conveying information about why procedures were used in a certain way or why outcomes were distributed in a particular manner. Additional Information: Organizational Justice

Answer 99

Correct Answer is: B Research on speed and accuracy in learning complex motor skills suggests the best approach is to emphasize speed of performance initially although, to a certain degree, the optimal approach depends on the specific skill. (See: Engelhorn, R. (1997). Speed and accuracy in the learning of a complex motor skills, Perceptual and Motor Skills, 85, 1011-1017.)

Answer 100

Correct Answer is: A In Super's theory, people achieve job satisfaction when they are able to express themselves and develop their self-concept through their work roles. the development of career maturity Career maturity results when a person masters the tasks at his or her developmental stage. awareness of personal reality and common reality This choice refers to Miller-Tiedeman and Tiedeman's model that an awareness of personal and common reality enhances career development. successful crossing of the Life Career-Rainbow The Life Career Rainbow refers to nine major roles that individuals adopt throughout their career development (e.g. student, parent, spouse, worker). Additional Information: Super's Career and Life Development Theory

Answer 101

Correct Answer is: D Summarizing the predictive validity of interviews and other selection techniques in a meta-analysis of the research, Schmidt and Hunter (1998) report measures of general mental ability are the most valid predictors across different jobs. For structured and unstructured interviews, they note corrected validity coefficients of .51 and .38, respectively. When an interview is combined with another selection procedure, especially a general mental ability test, the predictive validity of interviews is increased [The validity and utility of selection measures in personnel psychology: Practical and theoretical implications of 85 years of research findings, Psychological Bulletin, 124(2), 262-274]. Additional Information: Interviews (Selection Procedures)

Answer 102

Correct Answer is: A The technique of goal setting involves allowing workers to set their own performance goals, or setting performance goals for them that they accept. Research on goal-setting theory indicates that the technique is most effective when goals are at least moderately difficult and specific feedback regarding progress toward the goal is provided. Additional Information: Goal-Setting Theory

Answer 103

Correct Answer is: C Dawis and Lofquist's (1964) Theory of Work Adjustment defines satisfaction as an individual's satisfaction with a job based on how well it meets the individual employee's needs. Satisfactoriness refers to the degree to which the employee's skills meet the requirements of the job and to which the employee successfully performs the job. According to TWA, both are influences of employment tenure. Additional Information: Theory of Work Adjustment

Answer 104

Correct Answer is: D Knowing that Tiedeman and O'Hara based their model on Erikson's psychosocial theory of identity would have helped you select the correct answer. They proposed that a person develops a vocational identity through a process of differentiation (realizing that a career does not fit with one's personality) and integration (identifying with a career). Additional Information: Tiedeman and O'Hare's Decision Making Model

Answer 105

Correct Answer is: B According to McClelland's theory, three needs underlie motivation: need for achievement, need for power, and need for affiliation. Individuals high in need for achievement tend to seek autonomy, personal responsibility, and recognition for their efforts. Since the need for achievement is balanced against a need to avoid failure, these individuals tend to prefer moderately difficult goals and tasks. Additional Information: McClelland's Need for Achievement

Answer 106

Correct Answer is: B Based on the logic that decision making will be improved by using a decision-support framework that explicitly considers the costs and benefits of human resources (HR) decisions, a utility analysis summarizes and identifies key variables that describe the consequences of HR programs. Utility analysis has most frequently been studied as applied to selection procedures although other cost/benefit analyses have been applied to HR interventions such as recruitment, training, performance feedback, promotion, turnover/layoff management and more recently, new policy implementation. Studies have purported to identify, with a high degree of precision, the financial payback to be realized through investments designed to improve employee productivity. Advances in utility analysis application and related research have been limited due to an inability to develop an agreed-upon method to estimate the dollar value of job performance and its standard deviation (SDy). The challenge arises in uniformly evaluating human inputs, actions, and/or the outcomes of those actions as well as the uncertainty of task characteristics, relationships, and levels of task independence across positions and organizations. utilization review Utilization Review is a cost containment procedure involving an evaluation of patients' use of services to identify any unnecessary or inappropriate use of health care resources. concurrent review Concurrent review describes the utilization review conducted during the course of treatment. quality management Quality management is another name for quality assurance. (See: Boudreau, J.W. & Ramstad, P.M. (2001). Strategic I/O Psychology and Utility Analysis. In W. Borman, R. Klimoski & D. Ilgen (Eds.), Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons; Latham, G.P., & Whyte, G. (1994). The futility of utility analysis. Personnel Psychology, 47, 31-46. and Boudreau, J.W. (1991). Utility analysis for decisions in human resource management. In M.D. Dunnette & L.M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 621-745). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.) Additional Information: Utility Analysis

Answer 107

Correct Answer is: D All of the Big Five traits are relatively stable throughout adulthood. However, several studies have concluded that extraversion is the most stable trait, while neuroticism is the least stable over time. In a meta-analysis of 152 longitudinal studies, researchers obtained the following stability coefficients: Extraversion (.55), followed by Agreeableness (.52), Openness (.51), Conscientiousness (.49), and Neuroticism (.46) [B. W. Roberts & W. F. DelVecchio, The rank-order consistency of personality traits from childhood to old age: A quantitative review of longitudinal studies, Psychological Bulletin, 2000, 126(1), 3-25]. Additional Information: Personality Tests (Selection Procedures)

Answer 108

Correct Answer is: A The "big-five" personality traits have been found to be core traits which underlie all other personality characteristics and remain relatively stable over time, especially after age 30. The big-five traits are: agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, extraversion, and openness. Additional Information: Personality Tests (Selection Procedures)

Answer 109

Correct Answer is: D The "telling style" according to Hersey and Blanchard's (1974) description, is more effective when an employee's ability and willingness to accept responsibility are low. This leadership style involves high task orientation and low relationship orientation. The employee has low ability but high willingness to accept responsibility The leader should adopt the "selling" style-high task orientation and high relationship orientation. The employee has high ability but low willingness to accept responsibility The leader should adopt a "participatory" style-low task orientation and high relationship orientation. The employee's ability to and willingness to accept responsibility are both high The leader can use a "delegating style"; both low task and low relationship orientation. Additional Information: Hersey and Blanchard's Situational Leadership Model

Answer 110

Correct Answer is: A As the name implies, transformational leaders are change-focused and are able to create a vision of organizational change. They motivate by appealing to their subordinates' higher-order needs. Transformational leaders are particularly effective communicators who are good listeners and are able to express complicated ideas clearly and vividly, often through the use of analogies and metaphors. This is in contrast to transactional leaders, who focus more on "stability" than change. They foster normal, work-related activities and typically motivate through reward and punishment. Additional Information: Transformational vs. Transactional Leadership

Answer 111

Correct Answer is: B The ERG theory of motivation proposes three categories of needs: existence, relatedness, and growth needs. Existence needs are material and are met by environmental factors such as (in the workplace) pay and benefits. Relatedness needs are met by relationships with superiors, co-workers, and subordinates. Growth needs are met by opportunities for personal development such as the chance to develop abilities that are important to the person. These three categories exist on a continuum from concrete to abstract; existence needs are the most concrete and relatedness needs are the most abstract. The theory is similar to Maslow's Need Hierarchy Theory in that it proposes a continuum of needs, but differs in a number of ways as well. For instance, in ERG theory, a person can move back and forth on the needs continuum. Specifically, according to ERG theory, difficulties in satisfying the more abstract needs causes frustration regression, or a greater focus on fulfilling needs on the next level below. Additional Information: Alderfer's ERG Theory

Answer 112

Correct Answer is: A While there is no current consensus over the dimensions of justice in the organizational justice literature, two meta-analyses that used three and four-construct concepts found overlapping results on justice dimensions that predicted different outcomes. Cohen-Charash & Spector (2001) used a three-construct concept (distributive, procedural, and interactional) of justice to investigate the role of justice in organization outcomes. (See: Cohen-Charash, Y. & Spector, P.E. (2001). The Role of Justice in Organizations: A Meta-Analysis. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Vol 86; 2, November, 278-321.) Whereas Colquitt et al.'s (2001) meta-analysis reviewed 25 years of organizational justice research focusing on the operationalizations of justice using the dimensions of distributive, procedural, informational, and interpersonal justice. Despite the differences, results from both indicated procedural justice is the best predictor of work performance and counterproductive work behavior. Organizational citizenship behaviors were found to be related to all dimensions of justice in both studies and noted in Colquitt et al as support for interactional justice to be distinguished as two specific types of interpersonal treatment: interpersonal and informal justice. (See: Colquitt, J. A., Conlon, D. E., Wesson, W. J., Porter, C. O. L. H., & Ng, K. Y. (2001). Justice at the millennium: A meta-analytic review of 25 years of organizational justice research. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 425-445.) Additional Information: Organizational Justice

Answer 113

Correct Answer is: C A job selection test's incremental validity is the increase in predictive accuracy that is obtained by using the test as compared to not using it. Three factors influence the incremental validity of a test: 1) the base rate, or the percentage of correct hiring decisions made when the test is not used; 2) the test's validity coefficient; and 3) the selection ratio, or the ratio of job openings to total applicants (for instance, if 100 people are applying for 5 positions, the selection ratio is 5/100, or .05). Incremental validity is greatest when the base rate is moderate, the validity coefficient is high, and the selection ratio is low. The Taylor-Russell tables can be used to determine a test's incremental validity, given specific values for the base rate, validity coefficient, and selection ratio. Additional Information: Incremental Validity

Answer 114

Correct Answer is: B Knowing what the three forms of job commitment are would have helped you answer this question: Affective commitment refers to the employee's psychological attitudes toward the organization; normative commitment is the employee's perceived obligation to stay with the company; and continuance commitment refers to the costs of leaving the company. Given these definitions, it makes sense that continuance commitment would be least related to job satisfaction and other job-related attitudes and more to practical considerations.

Answer 115

Correct Answer is: A While group differences exist between African-Americans and Caucasians on test performance (that is, while mean scores differ on these various standardized tests), it has not been shown conclusively that the predictive validity coefficients of the tests are differentially moderated by ethnic group membership. In other words, a test is likely to have the same validity coefficient for all subgroups of the same population -- even though those subgroups may score differently, on the average, from each other. Additional Information: Adverse Impact

Answer 116

Correct Answer is: A Criterion contamination can occur when ratings are used as the criterion measure in a predictive equation. If the rater knows the ratees' scores on the predictor, the rating process can be contaminated. For instance, let's say IQ is used as a predictor of job performance. If the rater of job performance knows that an employee has an IQ of 150, the rater may judge the employee's job performance high simply because he knows the employee is very intelligent. This is criterion contamination, and it results in a spuriously high validity coefficient. Here, for instance, the IQ test will look like a very good predictor of job performance; however, if the raters had not known the ratees' IQs beforehand, the IQ test may not have turned out to be such a great predictor at all. Additional Information: Criterion Contamination

Answer 117

Correct Answer is: A Herzberg's two-factor theory divides job elements into two types: hygiene factors and motivators. Hygiene factors result in job dissatisfaction when absent, but do not lead to job satisfaction when present. Motivators result in job satisfaction when present, but do not lead to dissatisfaction when absent. Of the choices listed, only job content is a motivator. According to the theory, motivators are intrinsic to the work (i.e., they have to do with the job itself), while hygiene factors are extrinsic to the work. The other three choices are not directly related to the job itself and are classified by Herzberg as hygiene factors. Additional Information: Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

Answer 118

Correct Answer is: A The results of meta-analyses suggest that there are slight but statistically significant overall differences between men and women in leadership style. The results of Eagly et al's meta-analysis of transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles indicate female leaders were more transformational than male leaders, however they also engaged in more of the contingent reward behaviors - a component of transactional leadership. Male leaders were found to be more likely to manifest other aspects of transactional leadership, such as active and passive management by exception, and laissez-faire leadership. The implications of these results are positive for female leadership as it supports other research that has found the aspects of leadership style on which women exceeded men relate positively to leaders' effectiveness, while the aspects on which men exceeded women have null or negative relations to effectiveness. (See: Eagly, A. H., Johannesen-Schmidt, M. C., & van Engen, M. (2003). Transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles: A meta-analysis comparing women and men. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 569-591.)

Answer 119

Correct Answer is: D Bass (1985) suggested that transformational leadership contains the interrelated components of idealized or charisma influence (attributed or behavioral), inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration. In truly transformational leadership, high morals and ethical standards characterize charismatic or idealized influence. In research by Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Moorman and Fetter (1990), trust was found to be the single most important variable moderating the effects of transformational leadership on the performance, attitudes, and satisfaction of the followers. Inspirational motivation* provides followers with meaning and challenges for engaging in undertakings and shared goals. Intellectual stimulation* helps followers to question assumptions and to generate more creative solutions to problems. Individual consideration* treats each follower as an individual and provides coaching, mentoring and growth opportunities (* incorrect options). (See: Bass, B. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York: The Free Press. Bass, B. (1998). Transformational leadership: Industry, military, and educational impact. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. and Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Moorman, R. H., & Fetter, R. (1990). Transformational leader behaviors and their effects on followers' trust in leader, satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behaviors. Leadership Quarterly, 1, 107-142.) Additional Information: Transformational vs. Transactional Leadership

Answer 120

Correct Answer is: C Flextime allows for flexibility in scheduling work hours, as long as the required number of hours are worked and the employee is present for the pre-defined "core" hours" (e.g., 10 a.m. to 2 p.m.). Research indicates flextime is associated with improved employee absenteeism, productivity, job satisfaction, satisfaction with work schedule, and less worker stress. The greatest impact was on absenteeism, followed by productivity, satisfaction with schedule, and job satisfaction. Self-rated performance has not been found to be significantly related to flextime. Additional Information: Flextime

Answer 121

Correct Answer is: A The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 prohibits employers from discriminating against a qualified individual based on his or her disability. The ADA defines a disability as "a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more of the major life activities" of an individual. However, it specifically excludes certain conditions including: transvestism, transsexualism, pedophilia, exhibitionism, voyeurism, gender identity disorders not resulting from physical impairments, or other sexual behavior disorders, compulsive gambling, kleptomania, pyromania, and psychoactive substance use disorders resulting from current illegal use of drugs. All of the other choices would, therefore, be considered a disability. Additional Information: Americans with Disabilities Act

Answer 122

Correct Answer is: C Factor analysis has shown that job commitment has three forms. Affective commitment* refers to the employee's psychological attitudes toward the organization; continuance commitment* refers to the costs of leaving the company and normative commitment* is the employee's perceived obligation to stay with the company (* incorrect choices). Continuance commitment is least related to job satisfaction and other job-related attitudes and more to practical considerations.

Answer 123

Correct Answer is: D Factor analytic studies have identified five personality dimensions -- agreeableness, emotional stability, extraversion, openness, and conscientiousness -- that appear to underlie all other personality traits. The dimensions are commonly referred to in the literature "The Big Five." Of these, conscientiousness has the highest correlation with job performance and training success across a wide range of settings. Additional Information: Personality Tests (Selection Procedures)

Answer 124

Correct Answer is: D Expectancy theory predicts that motivation is related to three phenomena: beliefs about the relationship between effort and performance; beliefs about the relationship between performance and outcomes; and the desirability of those outcomes. The latter is referred to as valence. Additional Information: Expectancy Theory

Answer 125

Correct Answer is: A In any system, feedback is useful to make corrections. Even our nervous system makes use of this phenomenon: as your body temperature rises on a cold morning, you stop shivering. Likewise with institutions and organizations. This question asks about positive feedback, which, in systems terminology, refers to information that encourages disruption from the status quo. In organizational consulting and family therapy, positive feedback is used to correct or change a pattern; in response to positive feedback the system deviates from homeostasis, or the status quo. This question is not about reinforcing other patterns or extinguishing maladaptive patterns, as two of the choices indicate. These terms are related to behavioral learning theory, not systems theory. Additional Information: Properties of a Family System

Answer 126

Correct Answer is: C Selection bias is occurring when a test has different levels of predictive validity for different groups. Statistically, this is determined by comparing the regression lines for the two groups to see if there is a difference in their slopes and/or the Y-intercept. If there is, then using a common regression line to make selection decisions for members of both groups may result in an underestimate of criterion scores for one group and an overestimate for the other group. Additional Information: Adverse Impact

Answer 127

Correct Answer is: C Although Holland is probably most associated with interests, his theory proposes that interests are actually determined by personality. In addition, it proposes that workers will be happy and most productive when their personality matches the characteristics of the work environment. Additional Information: Holland's Personality and Environment Typology

Answer 128

Correct Answer is: A The engineering psychologist tends to examine the factors making up the job and how these impact the worker. The job elements, from such things as the illumination in the plant to the work rate, are manipulated to maximize the productive work of the employee. Fitting the worker to the job (e.g., hiring better people) is a function of personnel psychology. By contrast, the engineering psychologist works with the job elements and designs the most productive environment for the worker hired. Additional Information: Person-Machines Systems

Answer 129

Correct Answer is: C Ouchi's Theory Z is an organizational management philosophy that incorporates aspects from traditional American (Theory A) and Japanese (Theory J) management philosophies. The theory represents a middle ground, for example, emphasizing long-term employment versus short-term or lifelong and a moderately specialized career path instead of specialized or nonspecialized. Additional Information: Theory Z

Answer 130

Correct Answer is: A Holland and Roe both emphasized the importance of matching the individual's personality to the characteristics of the job. (Roe also focused on needs.) Holland proposed that a person with a conventional personality, for example, will be most satisfied if he/she has a "conventional" job (e.g., is an accountant). Additional Information: Holland's Personality and Environment Typology

Answer 131

Correct Answer is: C High group cohesiveness has positive and negative consequences. In terms of productivity, the relationship between group cohesiveness and group productivity is affected by several moderator variables. One of which is management supportiveness. High management support is associated with high levels of productivity for cohesive groups, while management hostility is associated with low productivity for cohesive groups. (See: A. Tziner and Y. Vardi, Effects of command style and group cohesiveness on the performance effectiveness of self-selected tank crews, Journal of Applied Psychology, 1982, 67, 769-775.)

Answer 132

Correct Answer is: D Fiedler's Contingency (LPC) theory proposes that a leader's effectiveness is determined by a combination of the leader's style and the characteristics of the situation. However, Fiedler believed that leaders cannot change their leadership style. Rather, their effectiveness is determined by the match between the leader's style and the demands of the situation. A high LPC leader describes his least preferred coworker in positive terms and is primarily person-centered. Whereas, a low LPC leader describes his least preferred coworker in negative terms and is more task-oriented. Low LPC leaders are most effective in either "very favorable" or "very unfavorable" situations, in which favorableness refers to amount of control. High LPC leaders are most effective in moderately favorable situations. Additional Information: Fiedler's Contingency (LPC) Theory

Answer 133

Correct Answer is: D This is one of those obscure questions which could appear on your examination. A lexical approach was first used by Sir Francis Galton in the 1880's. "Lexical" refers to the use of a dictionary, in this case, to identify personality traits. It is an atheoretical approach and was used to identify the Big Five Personality traits by performing a factor analysis on all the personality traits found in the dictionary. The Big Five traits are: conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, openness, and emotional stability/neuroticism. These five traits are believed to underlie all other personality characteristics. Additional Information: Big Five Personality Traits

Answer 134

Correct Answer is: D Peer evaluations aren't used often in organizations, partly because employees don't like them and partly because they have traditionally been considered to be less reliable and valid than supervisor evaluations. However, with regard to the latter, the research has actually found peer evaluations to be as psychometrically sound as supervisor evaluations. Additional Information: Performance (Criterion) Measures

Answer 135

Correct Answer is: D To answer this question you must first calculate the selection rate for females and the selection rate for males. The rate for females is 10% (1 hired for every 10 applicants) and the rate for males is 30% (3 hired for every 10 applicants). When the selection rate for any group is less than 4/5ths or 80% of the group most favored by the selection device, there is adverse impact. We must, therefore, multiply 30% by 80% (which equals 24%) to determine the minimum selection rate needed for females to avoid adverse impact. Since the female selection rate is 10%, which is less than 24%, there is adverse impact. However, adverse impact may be permitted if the selection criterion is a "bona fide occupational qualification." This requires evidence that the procedure is valid and there are no alternative measures which would have less adverse impact. Additional Information: Adverse Impact

Answer 136

Correct Answer is: A Self-directed work teams are self-directed; i.e., they determine their own goals, plan their own work processes, and may even hire their own replacements. A distinguishing characteristic of self-directed work teams is that members are generalists (versus specialists), and each member has (or learns) a broad range of skills. A possible downside of self-directed work teams is that they are associated with higher absenteeism than more traditional work groups. Additional Information: Theory X vs. Theory Y Leaders

Answer 137

Correct Answer is: C Organizational commitment is related to an employee's willingness to exert extra effort on behalf of the organization and, like job satisfaction, appears to have the highest correlation with job turnover. Additional Information: Organizational Commitment

Answer 138

Correct Answer is: A It might be helpful with these types of questions to draw and label the scatterplot. Keep in mind that the term "positive" is used to designate those selected or hired. "Negative" refers to those not selected or hired. "True" refers to a correct decision and "false" refers to an incorrect decision. When a predictor is raised, there are fewer people selected overall, that is, there are fewer positives (both true and false). However, the probability that those selected will meet the criteria (i.e. true positives) (e.g. successful job performance) increases. Additional Information: Decision-Making

Answer 139

Correct Answer is: A When using the paired comparison technique, a rater compares each person with every other person. It's specific but time-consuming, as you can see. The order of merit comparisons has the rater rank order the people in terms of some criterion, such as overall job performance. You can see that it wouldn't take as long as paired comparisons, but wouldn't be as precise either. Additional Information: Personnel Comparison Systems (Selection Procedures)

Answer 140

Correct Answer is: B The rational-economic model assumes that decision-making involves a rational process in which all alternatives are considered and the best possible decision is eventually made. The model requires that decision-makers obtain information about and consider all possible alternatives before making a decision. This requirement places an inordinate demand on the people involved. Thus, in the real world, decisions are usually made based on the information that is available given restraints of resources such as time, money, and personnel. Additional Information: Individual Decision-Making

Answer 141

Correct Answer is: A In this situation, Salesperson A has been given an ambiguous goal, while Salesperson B has been given a specific and, presumably, difficult goal. Goal-setting theory predicts that the latter results in the greatest effort and performance. Additional Information: Goal-Setting Theory

Answer 142

Correct Answer is: A Survey feedback, also known as organizational surveys, are most often used to evaluate employee attitudes and opinions about job satisfaction, job conditions, and problems at work. They are also used to ask for opinions about interventions; however, they are not generally used to evaluate the effects of interventions. Additional Information: Organizational Surveys

Answer 143

Correct Answer is: B The Strong is most valid for predicting occupational choice and satisfaction. Like any other interest inventory, it is not valid for predicting occupational success. Additional Information: Strong-Interest Inventory

Answer 144

Correct Answer is: D A process consultant, rather than merely correcting problems for his or her client, focuses on an organization's underlying processes, with the goal of making changes in processes so that individuals within the organization can solve their own problems. help the nurses organize regular meetings with the physicians and administrators to discuss their concerns. Thus, this choice is the best answer, as it is the only one which offers a way in which the nurses and administrators can work together to solve the problem of dissatisfaction with work conditions. explain the nurses' concerns to the hospital administrators. conduct a job analysis to determine how much the nurses deserve to be paid and present your results to the hospital administrators. By comparison, these two choices would have the consultant diagnose and "fix" the problem; these interventions would be consistent with the medical rather than the process model of consultation. Additional Information: Process Consultation

Answer 145

Correct Answer is: C Since we know that there are significant and consistent differences in mean ability scores between minority and Caucasian populations, this would be translated into differences in hiring rates when ability tests are used in job selection. Thus, you'd likely have adverse impact, which occurs when the hiring rate for one subgroup is 80% or less than the hiring rate for another subgroup. Additional Information: Adverse Impact

Answer 146

Correct Answer is: A A predictor test has differential validity when it is a valid predictor of outcome for one subgroup of examinees, but invalid or significantly less valid for another group. For example, if a test designed to predict college success predicted the success of whites fairly accurately, but provided little or no predictive information for African-American examinees, the test would have differential validity. Validity generalization studies have suggested that differential validity rarely occurs. Differential validity is not the same as differential prediction, which is a greater concern these days than differential validity. In technical terms, differential prediction means that the regression line (either is slope or its y-intercept) is different for different subgroups. In less technical terms, it means that given scores on a predictor test are associated with different outcomes for different subgroups. In differential prediction, a test can be equally valid for two subgroups, but the actual outcome or criterion scores are different for a given result on the predictor. Research on differential prediction also suggests that it is rare, though not as rare as differential validity, and some research shows that when it does occur, it tends to favor minority groups over majority groups. Additional Information: Adverse Impact

Answer 147

Correct Answer is: B Parallel process is a phenomenon in clinical supervision where the therapist in training behaves toward the supervising therapist in ways that mirror how the client is behaving toward the therapist in training. Additional Information: Parallel Process in Supervision

Answer 148

Correct Answer is: B Research on person-organization fit has focused primarily on individual outcomes (which seem positive). The few studies that have looked at organizational-level effects are not as supportive and suggest that, in the long run, too good of a fit between the employees and the organization can reduce creativity, adaptability to change, etc. Additional Information: Person-Organization Fit

Answer 149

Correct Answer is: B Research indicates the transactional-transformational leadership paradigm transcends organizational and national boundaries. The same relationships and conception of phenomena can be observed in a wide range of cultures and organizations. Studies of organizations such as business, education, the military, the government, and the private sector have provided evidence supporting universality across a variety of organizations. The applicability of the paradigm has also received evidence of wide support internationally in most continents. Unusual attributes of the organizations or cultures have been indicated as the source of exceptions to the universality of the leadership paradigm. (See: Bass, Bernard M. (1997). Does the transactional-transformational leadership paradigm transcend organizational and national boundaries? American Psychologist, 52(2),130-139.)

Answer 150

Correct Answer is: C In Holland's personality typology, the Conventional type most enjoys manipulating data, filing, and copying. The Realistic type* prefers working with tools and machinery. The Investigative type* is analytical, precise, and curious. The Artistic type is creative, introspective, and nonconforming. The Social type enjoys working with others. And the Enterprising type seeks economic or professional achievement through manipulating others. Obsessive-compulsive* is not one of Holland's personality types (* incorrect options). Additional Information: Holland's Personality and Environment Typology

Answer 151

Correct Answer is: B A person's career anchor is his or her self-concept consisting of self-perceived talents and abilities, basic values, motives, and needs as they pertain to the career. Schein says that people are primarily motivated by one of eight anchors - priorities that define how they see themselves and how they see their work. The eight anchors include: technical/functional competence - a desire to excel in a chosen line of work; general managerial competence - closely allied with the traditional career path of the corporation; autonomy/independence - individuals just want to be alone; security/stability - value predictable environment in which tasks and policies are clearly codified and defined; entrepreneurial creativity - desire to create something of own and run it; service/dedication to a cause - the need to focus work around a specific set of values; pure challenge - seek to solve or master challenges; and lifestyle - organized around an individual's private life. (See: Schein, E. H. (1978). Career Dynamics: Matching Individual and Organizational Needs. Reading, MA.: Addison-Wesley; Schein, E. H. (1990). Career Anchors (Rev. Ed.). San Diego: Pfeiffer, Inc.) Additional Information: Career Anchor

Answer 152

Correct Answer is: C If a person's pay is based on output, his or her output is likely to increase, but the quality of work will not necessarily increase. This makes sense -- if you are working so fast in order to produce more so that you can get paid more, the quality of your work is likely to suffer. In addition, increased pay is likely to decrease job dissatisfaction, as predicted by Herzberg's two-factor theory. Additional Information: Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

Answer 153

Correct Answer is: D Goal-setting theory proposes that, when people accept goals, they intend to achieve them and, therefore, are willing to put forth the effort to do so. Additional Information: Goal-Setting Theory

Answer 154

Correct Answer is: D Meta-analyses indicate that work-family conflict has an impact on job satisfaction and life satisfaction for both men and women. However, there is some evidence that it's effects for women may be greater, especially in terms of life satisfaction. Additional Information: Work-Family Conflict

Answer 155

Correct Answer is: B In this question, you should understand that the person is undertaking a job analysis -- studying what the job actually entails. From the job analysis, he or she can go ahead and find appropriate tests, or make up a test, to assess people's abilities to succeed at the job components identified by the analysis. In short, a job analysis can be used to identify appropriate content for a job selection measure. The other choices are incorrect because they imply that the person is conducting some kind of statistical validation study, which is not the case here. Additional Information: Job Analysis

Answer 156

Correct Answer is: D Work samples provide standardized, job-like conditions to measure work behavior. They are used as a selection technique, as an indicator of individuals likely to benefit from training, and as a means of reducing turnover through a job preview. Research indicates that work samples are generally good predictors of job performance; however, work samples of motor skills have more validity than work samples of verbal skills. Additionally, work samples are less likely to discriminate against individuals from different groups and are acceptable to applicants. Additional Information: Work Samples (Selection Procedures)

Answer 157

Correct Answer is: B Both multiple hurdle and multiple cut-off involve administering a series of predictor measures to prospective applicants. And in both cases, the examinee must succeed on all predictors in order to be selected. The difference is that, in multiple hurdle, predictors are administered in a successive order. If the applicant fails on any predictor, he or she no longer completes subsequent ones. By contrast, when multiple cut-off is used, examinees usually take all the predictors and the predictors are not necessarily administered in any particular order. Additional Information: Combining Predictors

Answer 158

Correct Answer is: D Personality tests have not been shown to have very good validity in predicting performance on almost all types of jobs. Reported validity coefficients between scores on these tests and measures of performance are typically less than .15. Reported validity coefficients for biographical data or job interviews are typically in the moderate range; structured interviews as opposed to the informal interviews that are most commonly used, often have higher validity. Assessment centers, which involve structured, group activities designed to assess how well prospective executives function in simulated situations requiring leadership, have been found to be relatively highly correlated with measures of job performance. Additional Information: Personality Tests (Selection Procedures)

Answer 159

Correct Answer is: A As long as you remembered that Herzberg views satisfaction and dissatisfaction as separate phenomena, you should have been able to pick the right answer to this question. According to Herzberg, the factors that cause dissatisfaction (hygiene factors) are different from those that contribute to satisfaction (motivator factors), which means that a person can be satisfied and dissatisfied at the same time. Additional Information: Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

Answer 160

Correct Answer is: B The personality dimensions here, along with neuroticism, make up the traits identified by the Five-Factor model of personality. These are dimensions of personality identified by factor analyses that have been confirmed across different cultures. They can be remembered by using the acronym OCEAN or CANOE. Of the five dimensions, conscientiousness--the tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement--has been shown to be most consistently related to different measures of job performance and success. For instance, in one study, conscientiousness was demonstrated to have significant correlations with measures of job proficiency, training proficiency, and performance data in personnel records. Additional Information: Personality Tests (Selection Procedures)

Answer 161

Correct Answer is: C Eagly and colleagues conducted a series of meta-analyses on the effects of gender on leadership. They found that overall, male and female leaders are equally effective. However, certain gender differences in leadership were found to exist. For example, female leaders were more effective when the leadership role was defined as "feminine" and males were more effective when the role was defined as "masculine." more effective than male leaders in first-level management positions, but males are more effective in middle management positions Contrary to this response, males were found to be more effective in first-level management positions and females were more effective in middle management positions. One interpretation of this finding is that lower-level management requires more technical skills, whereas middle-level management requires more human relations skills [A. Eagly, S. Karau, M. Makhijani, Gender and the effectiveness of leaders: A meta-analysis, Psychological Bulletin, 117(1), 1995, 125-145]. Additional Information: Gender Issues in Organizations

Answer 162

Correct Answer is: C You may have been able to answer this one through the process of elimination if you knew that the models described by Fiedler, Hersey and Blanchard, and House don't include a decision-tree, which is provided by the Vroom and Yetton model. Additional Information: Vroom and Yetton's Normative (Decision-Making) Model

Answer 163

Correct Answer is: C In a structured interview, a series of job-related questions with predetermined "correct" answers are used consistently with all interviewees for a particular job. An advantage of this technique is the provision of individual item scores and a total score that are derived from prespecified criteria. To predict job performance, the interview score can then be combined with scores on other selection procedures in a multiple regression equation or similar technique. Another advantage of the structured interview is that it reduces the impact of interviewer subjectivity*. A utility analysis* considers the procedure's validity coefficient, employee job performance variability (typically in dollar value of output or mean output), and the selection ratio to evaluate the practical value of a selection procedure. Subject matter experts* are one of several methods for determining scores to responses to a structured interview (* incorrect options). Additional Information: Interviews (Selection Procedures)

Answer 164

Correct Answer is: B Fiedler's Contingency (LPC) theory proposes that a leader's effectiveness is determined by a combination of the leader's style and the characteristics of the situation, including the leader-subordinate relations. Fiedler described a leader's style by scores on his Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) Scale and believed that leadership style cannot be changed. Rather, a leader's is determined by the match between the leader's style and the demands of the situation. A high LPC or relationship motivated leader describes his least preferred coworker in positive terms and is primarily person-centered. Whereas, a low LPC or task motivated leader describes his least preferred coworker in negative terms and is more task-oriented. Low LPC leaders are most effective in either "very favorable" or "very unfavorable" situations, in which favorableness refers to amount of control. High LPC leaders are most effective in moderately favorable situations. Additional Information: Fiedler's Contingency (LPC) Theory

Answer 165

Correct Answer is: D The different leadership styles defined by Hersey and Blanchard involve different combinations of task and relationship orientation. A high task, low relationship orientation defines the telling leadership style. low task and low relationship orientation. This choice is a delegating leader. low task and high relationship orientation. This is a participating leader. high task and high relationship orientation. This is a selling leader. Additional Information: Hersey and Blanchard's Situational Leadership Model

Answer 166

Correct Answer is: B Pooled interdependence occurs when individuals have a shared source of resources but little else in common; sequential involves a series or chain of one-way interactions in which individuals rely on those who precede them in the chain; reciprocal is described in the question and comprehensive is the most complex form as everyone involved is reciprocally interdependent on one another. While a greater potential for conflict and the loss of individuals due to turnover becomes more important as the intensity and complexity of interdependence increases from pooled to comprehensive, comprehensive interdependence can stimulate greater flexibility and enable groups to adapt more quickly to environmental changes.

Answer 167

Correct Answer is: A Organization development (OD) is a process used to facilitate organizational change. The phases of OD have been described by Burke as: entry, contracting, diagnosis, feedback, planning change, intervention, and evaluation. The purpose of the feedback phase is to help clients understand the information that the consultant has gathered and diagnosed so the clients can decide what actions to take [W. Burke, 1982, Organization Development: Principles and Practice. Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company]. Additional Information: Phases of Organizational Development

Answer 168

Correct Answer is: D The question is describing Super's Life-Career Rainbow. Super also emphasized the role of self-concept, suggesting that people will choose an occupation that allows them to express their self-concept. Super's Arch of Career Determination illustrates the psychological and socioeconomic variables that shape one's career. Additional Information: Super's Career and Life Development Theory

Answer 169

Correct Answer is: B Super's (1990) life-span, life-space approach to career development uses the life-career rainbow and the archway model to communicate the personal (e.g., values, needs, and interests) and situational (e.g., community, school, and social policies) determinants that influence when and how people play particular life roles and the degree of importance any life role holds. The rainbow is a longitudinal two-dimensional graphic depicting nine life roles that are played in four theaters as one progresses through five developmental stages. Super (1980) identified the nine primary life roles as: child, student, worker, partner, parent, citizen, homemaker, leisurite, and pensioner; the four theaters as: home, school, community, and workplace; and the five life stages as: growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance, and decline. The conceptual model emphasizes that individuals are involved in several roles simultaneously and that roles affect each other. Super (1990) later created the Archway model (1990) to clarify the influence of biographical-geographical, psychological, and socioeconomic components on career development. Additional Information: Super's Career and Life Development Theory

Answer 170

Correct Answer is: A Social loafing or Latane's "social disease" is the discovery that in regard to work, individual output declines when people are working together as a group. However, social loafing does not occur under all conditions. It is reduced or eliminated when participants believe that their individual contributions are identifiable or uniquely necessary for the group to succeed. "Groupthink" is the tendency for a group to make an irrational or impulsive decision in order to reach consensus. "Group polarization" refers to the tendency of individuals who start with a similar view to end with a more extreme position after group discussion. Additional Information: Social Loafing

Answer 171

Correct Answer is: C Distributive justice refers to the perceived fairness of outcomes. The outcome in organizations is typically considered to be a decision made regarding the employee such as hiring, performance appraisals, raise requests, or layoff decisions. Procedural justice* refers to the perceived fairness of the process by which outcomes were allocated. Interactional justice* refers to the exchange between an individual and supervisor or third party. Recent research suggests interactional justice consists of two distinct justice dimensions, informational and interpersonal. Informational justice* refers to the amount of information or the appropriateness of the explanations provided about why procedures were used or outcomes were distributed in a certain way (* incorrect choices). Interpersonal justice refers to how an individual is treated by a supervisor or third party involved in executing procedures or determining outcomes. (See: Colquitt, J. A. (2001). On the dimensionality of organizational justice: A construct validation of a measure. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 386-400.) Additional Information: Equity Theory

Answer 172

Correct Answer is: B The research on alternative work schedules is mixed; however, one consistent finding is that rotating shifts result in lowered productivity and satisfaction, higher accident rates, and more physical and mental health problems. Obviously, the more frequent the change in schedule, the more difficult it would be to adapt. On the other hand, compressed work week schedules, such as the 4/40, usually result in improved job satisfaction and decreased absenteeism. However, compressed schedules usually have no effect on productivity or, depending on the job, possibly a negative affect (while flextime schedules result in improved productivity, absenteeism, and satisfaction). Additional Information: Compressed Work Week

Answer 173

Correct Answer is: B Organ defined organizational citizenship behavior as discretionary, voluntary behaviors that are not part of an employee's specified role requirements nor formally rewarded by the organization and in aggregate, contribute to organizational effectiveness by enhancing the "social and psychological context that supports task performance" (Organ 1997: 91). Smith, Organ, and Near (1983) initially identified two distinct OCB dimensions: altruism*, defined as behaviors directed toward a specific person such as helping co-workers with work-related tasks and generalized compliance*, defined as behaviors representative of what a "good worker" should do, such as arriving on time and not wasting time while at work. Organ (1988) later proposed a five-factor model of OCB which included altruism as previously defined; (2) conscientiousness, previously referred to as generalized compliance by Smith et al. (1983) and representing behaviors that go above and beyond minimal expectations of good workers in areas such as attendance, timeliness, and conservation of resources; (3) sportsmanship, referring to behaviors such as tolerating trivial or minor inconveniences without complaining or initiating a grievance; (4) courtesy, involving anticipatory acts that help someone else prevent a problem such as consulting with others when making decisions that may affect them or providing relevant information in advance; and (5) civic virtue, referring to constructive involvement or participation in the overall organization and may include attending meetings regarding the organization. A number of other OCB dimensions have since been proposed and examined, with estimates ranging from one to seven; however most of the OCB literature relies either on the initial two factors or the five dimensions of Organ's (1988) taxonomy (LePine et al, 2002). Contextual performance* is work behavior that affects organizational performance less directly than the task-related behavior typically construed as "performance" and is often used synonymously with OCB in recent studies (* incorrect choices). (See: Smith, C. A., Organ, D. W., & Near, J. P. (1983). Organizational citizenship behavior: Its nature and antecedents. Journal of Applied Psychology, 68: 653-663; Organ, D. W. (1988a). Organizational citizenship behavior: The good soldier syndrome. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books; Organ, D. W. (1997). Organizational citizenship behavior: It's construct clean-up time. Human Performance, 10: 85-97; LePine, J. A., Erez, A., & Johnson, D. E. (2002). The nature and dimensionality of organizational citizenship behavior: A critical review and meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87: 52-65.) Additional Information: Organizational Justice

Answer 174

Correct Answer is: C According to equity theory, individuals compare the ratio of inputs they bring to a job (e.g., amount and quality of work) and the outcomes they receive (e.g., pay, praise) and attempt to keep that ratio equitable to their perceived input/outcomes of others. For example, if a person felt that he was doing more work than a colleague but both were getting the same pay, the person would perceive an underpayment inequity. The theory states that workers seek to restore equity if they perceive either an underpayment or an overpayment inequity. They may, for example, attempt to increase or decrease their inputs, seek more compensation or other positive outcomes, or change their perceptions of the value of the inputs or outcomes involved. Additional Information: Equity Theory

Answer 175

Correct Answer is: D Two models of decision making are the rational-economic (or classical) and the administrative (or behavioral) model. The rational-economic model deals with how decisions should be made. It assumes the decision-maker is completely rational, has access to and seeks all information relevant to the decision, considers all possible alternatives, and makes the best possible choice. The administrative model deals with how decisions are actually made. It assumes that, due to limited cognitive and external resources, decision-makers simplify problems, work with a limited range of options and alternatives, and employ "satisficing", or seeking the solution that meets minimally acceptable criteria, as opposed to an optimal solution. Additional Information: Individual Decision-Making

Answer 176

Correct Answer is: C This question is referring to a test's incremental validity. Incremental validity is the increase in decision-making accuracy resulting from the use of a particular predictor. Three factors influence the incremental validity of a test: 1) the base rate, or the percentage of correct hiring decisions made when the test is not used; 2) the test's validity coefficient; and 3) the selection ratio, or the ratio of job openings to total applicants (for instance, if 100 people are applying for 5 positions, the selection ratio is 5/100, or .05). Incremental validity is greatest when the base rate is moderate, the validity coefficient is high, and the selection ratio is low. The Taylor-Russell tables can be used to determine a test's incremental validity, given specific values for the base rate, validity coefficient, and selection ratio. the percentage of correct hiring decisions without the new test is very low the percentage of correct hiring decisions without the new test is very high We can eliminate these two options because a moderate base rate maximizes the usefulness of a selection test more than a low or high base rate does. there are few applicants for many job openings Contrary to this option, a low selection ratio (many applicants for few job openings) is better than a high selection ratio. Additional Information: Incremental Validity

Answer 177

Correct Answer is: B Holland distinguished between six personality types. The Realistic type prefers activities involving the manipulation of machinery or tools. The Conventional type* prefers manipulating data. The Enterprising type* seeks economic or professional achievement through manipulating others. The Artistic type* is creative, introspective, and nonconforming (* incorrect options). Additional Information: Holland's Personality and Environment Typology

Answer 178

Correct Answer is: D Equity theory holds that, in any work situation we assess both our input (how much effort we are contributing to a work situation) and our output (how much we get out of it). We then compare our input/output ratio to what we perceive are the ratios of our co-workers. A state of balance exists when we perceive that our input/output ratios are equal to those of our co-workers. An unbalanced situation is one in which these ratios are not perceived as equal. For instance, underpayment is an unbalanced situation in which outcomes are perceived to be less than contributions, and overpayment occurs when we perceive that our outcomes exceed contributions. Equity theory holds that motivation is affected by these perceived input/output ratios. For instance, if you perceive that you are contributing more to a company than a co-worker who is getting paid the same amount, you would take action to correct this inequity, whether it be by working less, asking for a raise, leaving the job, re-evaluating the value of your contributions, etc. Similarly, if you are getting paid more than a co-worker whom you perceive as just as valuable as yourself, you may work more, do better quality work, decide that you are more important than the co-worker, etc. The point is that the theory suggests that the relationship between pay and motivation is complex and will be mediated by one's perceived input, the perceived input/output ratio of co-workers, and the strategy chosen to achieve a state of balance or equity. Additional Information: Equity Theory

Answer 179

Correct Answer is: B The results of meta-analyses suggest that there are slight but statistically significant overall differences between men and women in leadership style. Specifically, women tend to adopt a more democratic or participatory leadership style, characterized by a greater concern with maintenance of interpersonal relationships and task accomplishments. Men, on the other hand, tend to adopt a more autocratic style. Additional Information: Gender Issues in Organizations

Answer 180

Correct Answer is: A In a forced distribution, or forced ranking, system of personnel evaluation, employees are basically ranked against each other. The method requires managers to distribute ratings into pre-specified performance distributions or rankings (e.g., 1 out of 100, top 10%), etc. Regarding the other choices, the forced choice methodology basically involves using a multiple choice scale to evaluate employees on a variety of dimensions; the rater must select one statement from a set (two or more) of statements that best describes the employee. BARS stands for Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales. These are constructed by doing a job analysis to identify critical incidents, or specific behaviors that are associated with good or poor performance. Using such as scale, a rater would choose the behavior most characteristic of the employee being evaluated. Finally, the method the question describes is not illegal as long it is applied fairly, and in fact describes the method of employee evaluation that Jack Welch implemented at GE in the 1980s and has been adopted by many other firms. Additional Information: Personnel Comparison Systems (Selection Procedures)

Answer 181

Correct Answer is: A Note that this question is asking about intra-rater reliability, not inter-rater reliability. The prefix "intra" means the same thing it means in other contexts (e.g., intra-psychic): inside or internal. Thus, the question is asking you how to increase the internal consistency of a rating instrument. Of the choices listed, the only one which makes sense is to train the raters to pay more attention to what they are doing. If they pay closer attention, they are less likely to score the test inconsistently. Incidentally, mutually exclusive and exhaustive rating categories are useful for increasing the inter-rater reliability of a test. Additional Information: Rater Biases

Answer 182

Correct Answer is: D A mixed standard scale tries to overcome halo, leniency, and similar rater biases by arranging, in a non-hierarchal manner, items that describe performance as either good, average, or poor and then the rater rates whether the individual performs better, equal to, or worse (+, 0, -) than the behavior described in the item. Items are arranged in a way, which supposedly helps reduce rater biases.

Answer 183

Correct Answer is: B This question refers to a framework that identifies three general strategies to bring about change in an organization: empirical-rational, power-coercive, and normative-reeducative. Empirical-rational strategies are based on the assumption that people are basically rational and, if they have all relevant information about a situation, will act in accord with their self-interest. Thus, a proposed change will be adopted if the proposer can rationally justify the change and show that it will benefit the members of the organization. The consultant in this question is explaining how the proposed changes will advance the self-interest of the employees; thus, he is adopting an empirical-rational approach. Additional Information: Organizational Change Strategies

Answer 184

Correct Answer is: C The paired comparison technique involves comparing each person to every other person in the organization in reference to one or more variables such as productivity. It is a time-consuming and expensive process but results in highly precise and differentiated evaluations of each person in the group evaluated. Additional Information: Personnel Comparison Systems (Selection Procedures)

Answer 185

Correct Answer is: C Based on the principle that a higher score must correlate with better performance on the job, top-down ranking* occurs when an employer selects candidates in the strict highest/lowest order of their test scores. Decisions based on rank ordering when there is no correlation between a higher score and better performance on the job results in adverse impact. Proposed alternatives to reduce adverse impact are using a cut-off score*, reflecting the minimal qualifications for the job rather than an unreasonably stringent requirement, and banding. Banding is based on the assumption that different scores should be viewed as equivalent unless they are statistically significantly different (determined by the standard error of the difference (SED) between scores) and refers to a range of scores being considered as equivalent for selection purposes. Adverse impact is reduced due to lower-scoring applicants being included within the band and banding provides flexibility to select from candidates based on other factors such as ethnicity, gender, work experience, seniority and other job-related factors. Multiple hurdles* approach requires applicants to score above a specific level or pass several measures such as a weighted application, drug test, interview, and skill tests (* incorrect choices). (See: Campion, M. A., Outtz, J. L., Zedeck, S., Schmidt, F. L., Kehoe, J. F., Murphy, K. R., & Guion, R. M. (2001). The controversy over score banding in personnel selection: Answers to 10 key questions. Personnel Psychology, 54, 149 - 185. and Aguinis, H. (Ed.). (2004). Test-Score Banding in Human Resources Selection. Westport, CT: Praeger.) Additional Information: Score Adjustment

Answer 186

Correct Answer is: B Holland proposed that all behaviors, including career choice, are a function of personality and the social environment. He distinguished between six personality types - realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional. A highly differentiated person would be someone who scored high on only one of the personality types. Holland believed that high differentiation would best predict the outcome of a personality and occupational match. Additional Information: Holland's Personality and Environment Typology

Answer 187

Correct Answer is: C Under the Cleary model, a test is considered unfair if the slope and/or the y-intercept of the regression line is different for one subgroup than for another. The effect of these statistical phenomena is that differences between subgroups on predictor scores would not be reflective of differences between the groups on the criterion. For instance, low scorers in one subgroup might do just as well on the criterion as high scorers in the other subgroup. Additional Information: Adverse Impact

Answer 188

Correct Answer is: A This is the way that people usually end up making decisions because they don't have the time or resources to consider all possible alternatives. According to the administrative decision-making model, this type of decision-making is referred to as "satisficing." (According to the rational-economic model, decision-making involves considering all possible alternatives.) Additional Information: Individual Decision-Making

Answer 189

Correct Answer is: B Landy's (1978) Opponent Process Theory of job satisfaction hypothesizes that job attitudes emanate from a person's physiological state. Opponent process theory assumes that when a person experiences an extreme emotional state, his or her central nervous system mechanisms attempt to bring him or her back to a state of emotional equilibrium or neutrality. In returning to neutrality, the emotional state may even surpass equilibrium and progress to the opposite emotional state. In this case, Patrick initially felt elated when informed of the praise then when the positive emotional state waned over time it continued to the opposite emotional state of anger. (See: Landy, F. J. (1978). An opponent process theory of job satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology, 63, 533-547.) Lawler's (1973) Model of Facet Satisfaction* posits that job satisfaction is conceived in terms of different facets of an individual's job; a compilation of feelings of satisfaction on an array of situational, biological, social and educational factors. Lawler's model specifies that workers compare what their jobs should provide in terms of job facets to what they currently receive from their jobs. Examples of facets include: gender, age, race, work load, job security, working conditions, workplace location, supervisor-subordinate relations, status and prestige of job, compensation, etc. (See: Lawler, E.E. (1973), Motivation in Work Organizations, Brooks/Cole, Monterey CA.). Warr's (1987) Vitamin Model* of work and mental health suggests that certain features in the workplace act in much the same way as vitamins. The level and combination of stressors have an effect on well-being and as with vitamins, some of the features start to have a negative effect if they increase beyond a recommended daily dose. The nine proposed stressors include: opportunity for control, opportunity for skill use, externally generated goals, variety, environmental clarity, availability of money, physical security (freedom from physical threat or danger), opportunity for interpersonal contact and valued social position . There is substantial empirical support for the particular stressors identified by Warr as he developed the stressor content of his model by reviewing the empirical literature on workplace stressors. (See: Warr, P. (1987). Work, Unemployment, and Mental Health, Clarendon Press, Oxford.) The job satisfaction/job dissatisfaction* theory is the basis of Herzberg's concept of job satisfaction which distinguishes two separate groups of factors influencing individual job satisfaction and dissatisfaction (* incorrect choices). The first group, called "motivators," leads to job satisfaction; the second group, called "hygienes," leads to job dissatisfaction. Motivator or "intrinsic" factors of job satisfaction include achievement, recognition, the work itself, and the intrinsic interest of the job. Hygiene or "extrinsic" factors of the job include pay, job security, working conditions, policy and administration, and relationships with peers and supervisors.

Answer 190

Correct Answer is: B Research on the effects of the CWW is mixed. A meta-analysis by Baltes and colleagues (1999) found the CWW to have positive effects on supervisor ratings of employee performance and employee overall job satisfaction. Additional Information: Compressed Work Week

Answer 191

Correct Answer is: B Of the four choices, only the relationship between job dissatisfaction and job turnover has been found to be significant. Additional Information: Job Satisfaction

Answer 192

Correct Answer is: B The situation described in this question is referred to as differential validity, which can be a cause of adverse impact. (Unfairness is another cause of adverse impact but is different from differential validity.) Additional Information: Adverse Impact

Answer 193

Correct Answer is: D Job enrichment involves redesigning a job in order to enable workers to have more challenge, responsibility, decision-making authority, and opportunities for advancement. Although the research findings are mixed, they generally have found that job enrichment leads to increased job satisfaction, decreased tardiness, absenteeism and turnover, and in some cases, increased job performance in terms of quality rather than quantity. The benefits of job enrichment are greatest among younger, well-educated, employees who have a high need for achievement. Additional Information: Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

Answer 194

Correct Answer is: A Procedural justice is commonly defined by way of a distinction from distributive justice. Judgments of distributive justice are based on comparisons between one's own outcomes to those of others; fairness is perceived when those outcomes are perceived as equal. By contrast, judgments of procedural justice depend on perceptions of fairness in the processes that lead to outcomes. The question describes a situation in which outcomes are equal but the processes that led to them were different. If the person had been focused on distributive justice, she would have been equally upset about losing money in either circumstance, in the trial or to the thief. However, if she is less upset losing the money in a civil judgment, her judgment of fairness may be related to the process by which the money was lost; for example, she may have perceived the trial as reasonably fair. Therefore, procedural justice is the best answer of the choices listed. Additional Information: Organizational Justice

Answer 195

Correct Answer is: D The concepts of business necessity and job relatedness represent conditions that may allow the use of a selection procedure that has an adverse impact for members of a protected group. According to the Americans with Disabilities Act and the Federal Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures, if an employer can show that a selection measure, or other employment procedure, that is having an adverse impact is job related and a business necessity, then the employer may be able to continue using the procedure. Additional Information: Adverse Impact

Answer 196

Correct Answer is: B To answer this question, you have to have the name Herbert Simon linked with the bounded rationality (administrative) model of decision making, which proposes that decision makers are not always completely rational in making choices. Instead, time and resources limit their consideration of alternatives, so they tend to consider alternatives only until a satisfactory one is identified. Additional Information: Individual Decision-Making

Answer 197

Correct Answer is: C As its name implies, job rotation (a type of on-the-job training) involves rotating a worker though a variety of jobs. Its use is based on the assumption that workers can perform many different kinds of tasks. Additional Information: Program Design (Training)

Answer 198

Correct Answer is: A A needs assessment, or analysis, is carried out to identify training needs and includes other analyses such as task analysis and person analysis. Determining training objectives* is an outcome of a needs analysis and a personnel audit* is part of an organizational assessment which is also a part of a needs analysis. Job evaluations* are used to set wages and salaries. Additional Information: Needs Analysis

Answer 199

Correct Answer is: D The question describes Krumboltz's Social Learning Theory of Career Decision Making (SLTCDM) which includes four major factors of influence on career decisions: genetic characteristics and special abilities; environmental conditions and events; learning experiences; and task approach skills, including performance expectations, values, work habits, and emotional responses. The social learning influences can be positive or negative factors. Holland* and Roe* both emphasized the importance of matching the individual's personality to the characteristics of the job although Roe also focused on needs. Herzberg's* two-factor theory addresses worker motivation and satisfaction, not making a career choice (* incorrect choices). Additional Information: Krumboltz's Social Learning Theory of Career Decision Making

Answer 200

Correct Answer is: A On a Guttman scale, items are arranged in an order so that an individual who agrees with a particular item also agrees with items of lower rank-order. An example is the social distance scale developed by Bogardus, which is used to assess a person's attitudes toward particular subgroups. On this scale, agreement with an item such as "I would marry a New Yorker," implies agreement with lower-level items, such as "I would not mind having a New Yorker as a neighbor."

Answer 201

Correct Answer is: B Used to increase diversity and reduce adverse impact in the workplace, banding is based on the assumption that different scores should be viewed as equivalent unless they are statistically significantly different (determined by the standard error of the difference (SED) between scores) and refers to a range of scores being considered as equivalent for selection purposes. Adverse impact is reduced due to lower-scoring applicants being included within the band and banding provides flexibility to select from candidates based on other factors such as ethnicity, gender, work experience, seniority and other job-related factors. ranking Ranking refers to use of a point system to rate or "rank" applicants based on various requirements of the job. multiple hurdles The multiple hurdle technique requires sequentially passing two or more screening tests or procedures. Additional Information: Score Adjustment

Answer 202

Correct Answer is: B Hershey and Blanchard's Situational Leadership Theory holds that there is no one correct leadership style across situations; depending on the situation, the leader must respond with the correct task and relationship behavior or orientation. Leadership behaviors are classified as either high or low in task orientation or relationship orientation, resulting in four possible leadership styles. The correct style depends on the maturity level of subordinates. At the lowest maturity levels, where followers cannot do the job and are unwilling or afraid to try, the leader should adopt a high task/low relationship style called Telling / Directing. At the next lowest level, followers have variable competence, and are willing to do the job; the appropriate leadership orientation in this case is high task/high relationship, or Selling / Coaching. Workers at the second highest developmental level can do the job but are uncommitted or unmotivated; here, a low task/high relationship style, Participating / Supporting, is recommended. Finally, the least directive style of leadership, the low task/low relationship oriented style called Delegating / Observing, is recommended for workers at the highest maturity levels - those who are competent and motivated to perform. Additional Information: Hersey and Blanchard's Situational Leadership Model

Answer 203

Correct Answer is: C The halo effect occurs when evaluations of one aspect of a person's behavior influence evaluations of other aspects. The halo effect can be positive or negative; i.e., it can result in a bias in favor of or against a person. Here, we see an example of it operating in a negative way. Additional Information: Rater Biases

Answer 204

Correct Answer is: C Driver, Brousseau, and Hunsaker (1993) identified five types of decision-makers based on how much information is considered and how many alternative solutions are sought. The five types are: Decisive, Flexible, Hierarchic, Integrative, and Systemic. The Decisive is fast, efficient, and relies on a minimal amount of information (i.e., a satisficer) and a single solution. The Flexible decision-maker also moves fast and is a satisficer, but is willing to adapt and change solutions if indicated. Hierarchics rely on a lot of information (i.e., are maximizers) but stay rigidly focused on a single solution. The Integrative decision-maker relies on a lot of information (i.e., a maximizer) but pursues multiple solutions. Systemics keep their eyes on the "big picture," rely on maximum information (i.e., a maximizer), and develop a prioritized set of strategies for dealing with a situation, rather than a single solution or a collection of alternative plans. The other choices refer to other leadership styles and decision-making models which should be familiar to you. Transformational and transactional are types of leaders. Transformational leaders raise the consciousness of their employees and transactional leaders focus on rules and maintaining the status quo. The administrative model is a decision-making model proposed by Simon, which he contrasted to the rational-economic model. According to the administrative model, decision-makers can't afford to be rational and must be satisficers. Autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire refer to three styles of leadership proposed by Lewin, Lipitt, and White. Autocratic leaders make decisions alone, democratic leaders involve subordinates in decision-making, and laissez-faire leaders allow subordinates to make decisions on their own with little guidance. Additional Information: Driver's Decision Making Styles

Answer 205

Correct Answer is: B Research investigating the impact of personal and contextual characteristics on the creativity of employees indicates increasing the physical distance between workers*, providing supportive supervision*, and being informed evaluations will be developmental rather than judgmental has a positive effect on employee creativity. The expectation that one's work will be critically evaluated tends to diminish creativity. Of the five personality factors, openness to experience* has been most strongly related to creativity (* incorrect options). [See: Shalley, C., Zhou, J., & Oldham, G. (2004). The effects of personal and contextual effects on creativity: Where should we go from here?, Journal of Management, 30(6), 933-958.]

Answer 206

Correct Answer is: D The "classic" performance equation is P = f{A X M}, which means that performance is a function of ability and motivation. Research has suggested that ability is more important in this equation than motivation, and that other factors (e.g., environmental factors) also play a role in performance. However, contrary to the other choices, neither interest nor satisfaction has been found to be highly correlated with performance. Additional Information: Performance Equation

Answer 207

Correct Answer is: C Expectancy theory is based on the premise that motivation is a cognitive process involving a combination of three variables: valence, instrumentality and expectancy. The theory is also referred to as Valence-Instrumentality-Expectancy Theory or VIE Theory. The belief that if I complete certain actions then I will achieve the outcome. Expectancy refers to the belief that effort will lead to successful performance. The belief that I am able to complete the necessary actions. Instrumentality refers to the beliefs that successful performance will result in certain outcomes. The value of the perceived outcome or "What's in it for me?" The value placed on the outcomes of performance is referred to as valence. The need to attribute cause describes Attribution Theory.

Answer 208

Correct Answer is: C This is one of those concepts that you either know or don't know, so it wouldn't be worth a lot of time trying to figure out the right answer. Now you know: Frame-of-reference training is used to improve rater accuracy by teaching raters to focus on the various characteristics and requirements that contribute to good job performance. Additional Information: Rater Biases

Answer 209

Correct Answer is: A If you're familiar with the research on leadership, you might be aware that factor analyses of leadership qualities has, over the years, consistently identified two basic factors -- task orientation (instrumentality) and consideration. Knowing this would have helped you pick the right answer. Also, consideration is a better choice because it is a more general answer and could be conceived of as encompassing the characteristics listed in the other responses. Additional Information: Consideration vs. Initiating Structure

6- Industrial / organization psychology Flashcards

(233 cards)