9- Social Psychology Flashcards

Question

According the Social Exchange Theory of attraction, whether or not a person is attracted to another person depends mostly on Select one: A. the person's similarity to the other person in background. B. the perceived costs and benefits of the relationship. C. the person's similarity to the other person in physical attractiveness. D. whether or not the other person likes the person.

Answer 1

Correct Answer is: B According to Social Exchange Theory, the level of satisfaction from and attraction to a particular relationship with another person derives from the perceived costs and benefits of the relationship. People seek relationships where their personal and social costs are minimal and their rewards and benefits are maximized. In analyzing these costs and benefits, people consider the outcomes available from a current relationship, or one currently under consideration, and compare those outcomes to those that can be obtained from an alternative relationship. The theory assumes that people accurately and rationally perceive the costs and benefits of current relationships and their alternatives, though research has suggested that this often is not the case. Additional Information: Maintenance of Romantic Relationships

Answer 2

Correct Answer is: C Bandura's social learning holds that direct external reinforcement of behavior cannot account for all learning. He proposed, for instance, that some behavior is intrinsically reinforcing, and also that some learning can occur through imitation of other people. Because his theory deals with the imitation of models, it provides more support than other theories for the idea that watching violence on television leads to violent behavior. It should be noted that this is not a necessary outcome according to Bandura, as he identifies four requirements--attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation--that must be present for a behavior to be imitated. In other words, not all observed behaviors are imitated, but because Bandura's theory deals directly with the imitation of models, it is the best answer to this question. Additional Information: Social Learning Theory

Answer 3

Correct Answer is: A Viewing sexually explicit films, particularly those which depict violence against women, has been shown to have several negative effects on men. They are more likely to rate their sexual partners as less attractive and to interpret a woman's friendliness as a sexual gesture. If the film they viewed depicted a man sexually overpowering a woman, the men subsequently reported a greater likelihood of committing rape as long as they were sure they would not get caught. Contrary to this choice (recommend more severe prison sentences for convicted rapists ), the men were more likely to recommend a more lenient prison sentence for convicted rapists. [R. J. Harris, The impact of sexually explicit media, in J. Brant and D. Zillman (eds.), Media Effects: Advances in theory and Research, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1994]. Additional Information: Social Learning Theory

Answer 4

Correct Answer is: A Research has found that people are more likely to recall the first item (primacy effect) and the last item (recency effect) in a series of presented items. The relative magnitude of these two effects varies depending on the length of the time interval. Within the first few seconds after presentation of a series of items, the recency effect is more powerful. However, for longer intervals, the primacy effect has been shown to be stronger (A. Knoedler, K. Hellwig, & I. Neath, The shift from recency to primacy with increasing delay. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 1999, 25(2), 474-487). Additional Information: Primacy and Recency Effects

Answer 5

Correct Answer is: C Relational aggression is described as any behavior that is intended to harm someone by damaging or manipulating relationships with others (Crick, 1995). The two types of relational aggression are proactive and reactive. Proactive relational aggression is when behaviors are a means for achieving a goal, such as excluding someone from a group in order to maintain one's own social status. Reactive relational aggression is behavior that is in response to provocation, with the intent to retaliate. Some of the manifestations of relational aggression include: ignoring, teasing, exclusion, insults, malicious gossip and rumor spreading, intimidation, alliance building, withdrawing affection and cyberbullying. The motivation for relational aggression is varied, however, often includes: power, control, fear, popularity and/or security. Hostile attribution bias is the tendency to believe that others are trying to cause harm even in neutral or unclear situations. Research indicates hostile attribution bias may be due to deficits in social information processing. Findings show children with peer relationship difficulties are less accurate in interpreting the intentions of other children and are more likely to attribute hostile intent to neutral or ambiguous peer behavior (de Castro et al., 2002). Likewise, studies of aggressive children indicate they are more likely than nonaggressive children to interpret the ambiguous behaviors of peers as intentionally hostile and, therefore, to react to those peers with aggressive, hostile behaviors. (See: Crick, N. R. (1995). Relational aggression: The role of intent attributions, provocation type, and feelings of distress. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 313-322; de Castro, B. O., Veerman, J. W., Koops, W., Bosch, J. D. & Monshouwer, H. J. (2002) Hostile attribution of intent and aggressive behavior: a meta-analysis. Child Development, 73, 916-934.)

Answer 6

Correct Answer is: D One of the major obstacles to good group decision-making is groupthink. Groupthink is an intensive tendency to seek agreement among members of the group, which prevents full consideration of alternative decisions, to the point where the decisions reached may become irrational. Some of the factors which contribute to groupthink include: high group cohesiveness, homogeneous backgrounds and values, and a strong, directive leader. A group consisting of members with complementary skills is not homogeneous, and would be less likely to succumb to groupthink. the task requires a high degree of creativity Contrary to this choice, tasks which require a high degree of creativity tend to be performed better by individuals than groups. Additional Information: Groupthink

Answer 7

Correct Answer is: B According to Social Judgment Theory, a person categorizes new information or positions into one of three zones or latitudes: latitude of acceptance, latitude of non-commitment, and latitude of rejection. The latitude of acceptance contains all the positions on a particular topic that a person finds acceptable. Within this latitude is the "anchor" which is the single position that a person finds the most acceptable. The latitude of non-commitment contains the positions that are neutral for the person. The latitude of rejection contains all the positions on an issue that a person rejects. The theory claims persuasion is a difficult process and cannot occur in circumstances such as: new information is judged to fall within the latitude of rejection; a person is ego-involved (correct answer) in the issue causing the latitude of rejection to be larger than usual and making persuasion even more difficult; and, when people tend to distort new information through assimilation and contrast diluting the persuasive potential of new information. When distortions like this occur, no persuasion will result if the new information falls within the latitude of acceptance and is close to the anchor position as the person will "assimilate" or pull the new position closer and make it seem like it is already accepted or more acceptable than it really is. However, if the new position is out of the latitude of acceptance, then a person will "contrast" or push the information farther away to the latitude of rejection and make it seem worse than it really is. Additional Information: Social Judgment Theory

Answer 8

Correct Answer is: C Researchers find a consistently moderate positive correlation between ratings of facial beauty and ratings of personality and intelligence, regardless of whether the faces are female or male. This is an example of the halo effect. In other words, attractive people are rated as having better personalities and unattractive people are rated less positively. Additional Information: Halo Effect

Answer 9

Correct Answer is: B Idiosyncratic credits are related to minority influence. Hollander (1985) found that in order to become either the leader of a group or successfully challenge the majority opinion of a group, a person must first conform to the group in order to establish his or her credentials as a "competent insider". By becoming accepted, member's idiosyncracy credits are accumulated, which are like "brownie points". Additional Information: Factors that Affect Conformity to a Minority

Answer 10

Correct Answer is: C Sherif and Sherif, in their "Robber's Cave" studies, divided 11-year-old boys into two groups that were pitted against each other in a series of competitions. Hostility between the two groups developed rapidly, with members of each group developing negative stereotypes of the other. Sherif tested a number of ways to reduce this inter-group conflict, and found that the only effective method was introducing a common goal that required the two groups to work together. Later research has clarified this finding: for groups that have not worked together cooperatively in the past, superordinate goals are only effective in reducing inter-group hostility when the goals are successfully achieved, each group has a distinctive role to play in achieving the goal, and group members feel that both groups contributed in a clearly defined way. Additional Information: Robbers Cave Study

Answer 11

Correct Answer is: A Investigators P. Tjaden and N. Thoennes report in Extent, nature and consequences of intimate partner violence: Findings from the National Violence Against Women Study (July 2000) that Asian/Pacific Islander women reported significantly less intimate partner violence than women of other racial backgrounds with a lifetime victimization rate of 15%. It has been suggested that traditional Asian values emphasizing close family ties and harmony may discourage Asian women from disclosing physical and emotional abuse by intimates. Therefore, the lower rates may be partially due to under-reporting. American Indians/Alaska Native women* report the highest rates of intimate partner victimization with a lifetime rate of 37.5%. African American females* report a rate of 29.1% and White females*, 24.8% (* incorrect options). It is unclear how much of the difference between victimization rates among women of differing racial backgrounds may be explained by differences in willingness to report; by demographic, social, and environmental factors; and how much by actual victimization experiences.

Answer 12

Correct Answer is: D There are four current theoretical explanations for the relationship between intensity (i.e., anxiety, arousal, nervousness) and athletic performance: Inverted-U Hypothesis (Yerkes & Dodson, 1908); Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning Model (Hanin, 1986); Catastrophe theory (Hardy & Fazey, 1987), and Reversal theory (Kerr, 1987). The Inverted-U theory* is the most popular explanation of the relationship of intensity and athletic performance and is often referred to as the Yerkes-Dodson Law. It purports moderate intensity is optimal for all athletes, theorizing as intensity increases from low to moderate levels there is an associated improvement in performance and performance worsens once intensity levels either exceed or fall below this moderate range. The Individual Zones of Optimal Function (IZOF) model*, proposes that the optimal level of intensity may vary, ranging from very low to very high for different individuals, and that a multitude of inter-individual differences exist across athletes and sport settings. Catastrophe theory*, suggests that physiological arousal is dependent upon the level of cognitive intensity of the individual athlete and that cognitive, somatic and self-confidence aspects exert an interactive three-dimensional influence on performance (* incorrect options). Reversal theory states how an athlete interprets his or her own intensity levels, whether as positive or negative, influences performance. The theory also suggests for successful performances to occur, athletes must view their own intensity level as positive and that perceptions of intensity are dynamic and constantly changing throughout the course performance. (See: Taylor, J., & Wilson, G.S. (2002). Intensity regulation and sport performance. In J. Van Raalte & B. Brewer (Eds.) Exploring Sport and Exercise Psychology (2nd ed.) (pp. 99-130). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.)

Answer 13

Correct Answer is: C Negative state relief theory states we engage in prosocial behavior to relieve our own state of emotional distress at another's plight. Cognitive-appraisal theory states that one's emotion at a given time depends on one's interpretation of the situation one is in. Instrumentality refers to the extent to which an individual believes that attaining a particular outcome will lead to other positively valued outcomes. Opponent-process theory of emotion proposes that the brain avoids extremes of emotional experience by counteracting a strong positive or negative emotion with an opposite or opponent emotional response. Opponent processes have been shown to be associated with characteristic changes in affective experience that occur over time, and the dynamics of affective response to such stimuli as horror movies, skydiving and addiction. (See: Solomon, R.L. 1980. The opponent-process theory of acquired motivation: The costs of pleasure and the benefits of pain. American Psychologist 35:691-712.).

Answer 14

Correct Answer is: C A group's decisions tend to be more extreme (in one direction or the other) than those that would be made by individuals in the group acting alone. This phenomenon is referred to as group polarization. One explanation for group polarization is that group members are more willing to support extreme decisions because, as group members, they won't have to take as much personal responsibility for their decisions as they would if they were acting alone. Additional Information: Group Polarization

Answer 15

Correct Answer is: A One of Schacter's (1999) Seven Sins of Memory, misattribution is divided into source confusion, cryptomnesia and false recall/false recognition. This question is an example of source confusion, in which is a type of misattribution is in regard to the source of a memory. Cryptomnesia is a form of misattribution where a memory is mistaken for imagination, because there is no subjective experience of it being a memory. Schacter also proposed the "tip of the tongue" phenomenon, in which a person is able to recall parts of an item, or related information, but is frustratingly unable to recall the whole item. This is thought to be an instance of "blocking" where multiple similar memories are being recalled and interfere with each other. (See: Schacter, D. L. (1999). "The Seven Sins of Memory: Insights From Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience" American Psychologist Vol. 54. No. 3, 182-203; Schacter, D. L., J. Y. Chiao, J. P. Mitchell. (2003). "The Seven Sins of Memory. Implications for Self" Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1001 (1), 226-239.)

Answer 16

Correct Answer is: C According the Lewin's field theory, behavior is a function of the relationship between a person and his or her environment. Lewin used the following formula to express this relationship: B = f(P,E) where B is behavior, P is the person, and E is the environment. As a person moves towards one of the goals in an approach-approach conflict, it becomes less attractive and the other goal becomes more attractive. This choice is the opposite of Lewin's prediction. That is, when faced with an approach-approach conflict, the selected choice becomes more attractive while the other choice becomes less attractive. A person's "life space" is equivalent to Jung's notion of the collective unconscious. "Life space" is also a central concept in field theory but refers to everything in a person's psychological environment - not the collective unconscious. Additional Information: Lewin's Field Theory

Answer 17

Correct Answer is: D According to Allport, intergroup contact for reducing prejudice is only likely to be beneficial when intergroup contact is both frequent ("frequent intergroup contact") and of a duration that allows meaningful relationships to develop; the two groups have equal status ("equal status between groups "); the two groups are working towards common goals based on co-operation and social and institutional support is given. Allport notes that if these conditions are not met, contact may actually increase prejudice. Additional Information: Contact Hypothesis

Answer 18

Correct Answer is: A Social facilitation can explain the apparently contradictory results between subjects whose performance increases in the presence of others versus those whose performance decreases. The theory is as follows: The presence of others will increase motivation; therefore, if the behavior is well-learned, increased motivation will lead to increased performance. If the behavior is not well-learned, however, the presence of others will lead to heightened arousal, which will interfere with the person's ability to concentrate on the task at hand. Additional Information: Social Facilitation and Social Inhibition

Answer 19

Correct Answer is: A According to Jerry Patterson and his colleagues, aggressive behavior often develops from the parent's style of parenting; an aggressive child's parent used lots of directives combined with inconsistent harsh physical punishment. Additional Information: Origins of Aggression

Answer 20

Correct Answer is: D The effectiveness of persuasive communication depends on numerous factors. One important factor is the credibility of the communicator. Individuals who are perceived as trustworthy and possessing expertise are credible, and such communicators can induce attitude change in an audience even when there is a large discrepancy between the audience's initial position and the communicator's argument. However, research shows that the effectiveness of well-presented communication from a source low in credibility tends to increase over time, because people tend to remember the message but forget the source. This phenomenon is known as the "sleeper effect". The other choices all present factors likely to decrease the effectiveness of an argument from a source low in credibility. Message recipients who are very ego-involved in a particular issue are less-likely to change their opinion about that issue than those who are less ego-involved. And as noted already, individuals who are low in credibility are unlikely to induce opinion change when there is a large discrepancy between the communicator's and the audience's position. Finally, messages that arouse a moderate amount of fear are associated with greater attitude change than messages than induce very little or very high fear. Additional Information: Communicator Credibility

Answer 21

Correct Answer is: B When we become attracted to someone we meet for the first time, it is most likely because of physical characteristics. Attraction due to other factors, such as intelligence, compatibility, etc., comes later. Additional Information: Attraction

Answer 22

Correct Answer is: D This question is indirectly referencing McGuire's inoculation theory, which proposes that a particular attitude or belief can be strengthened by exposing someone to the opposing belief -- especially when the opposing argument is weak or the person is supplied with counter-arguments against the opposing belief. Note that this is analogous to medical inoculation, which involves injection of a weak form of a germ so the body can build up defenses against that germ. Additional Information: Inoculation Theory

Answer 23

Correct Answer is: D You need to be able to differentiate between the different types of attributional errors. The fundamental attribution error or bias only refers to interpretations of others' behaviors. It occurs when we underestimate situational factors and overestimate dispositional factors in understanding the behavior of others. For example, if we see someone trip and assume it's because they're clumsy. overrestimate the impact of the situation and underestimate dispositional factors in interpreting one's own behavior. This describes the actor-observer effect. overestimate the impact of the situation and underestimate dispositional factors in interpreting one's own failures and underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate dispositional factors in interpreting one's own successes. This describes the self-serving bias. Additional Information: Fundamental Attribution Error

Answer 24

Correct Answer is: B Morgan's mental health model (MHM) of sport performance proposes an inverse relationship exists between psychopathology and sport performance. In other words, positive mental health is directly related to athletic success and high levels of performance whereas performance lessens as mental health worsens. Morgan found successful athletes tend to be vigorous and have little tension, depression, confusion, anger, and fatigue, a combination known as the iceberg profile. Other studies have shown that using general psychological measures of personality structure and mood state can identify between 70 and 85% of successful and unsuccessful athletes, which is a level superior to chance but still insufficient for the purpose of selecting athletes. MHM is a considered a means to help maintain the mental and physical health of athletes, such as mood state monitoring to prevent staleness syndrome in overtraining athletes, but not for use as a selection tool. (See: Morgan W.P. (1985). Selected psychological factors limiting performance: a mental health model. In: Clarke DH, Eckert HM, editors. Limits of human performance. Champaign (IL): Human Kinetics, 70-80.)

Answer 25

Correct Answer is: A This question is related to Weiner's attributional theory of motivation and emotion. Attributions are our causal explanations for events and the behavior of ourselves and others. According to Weiner, attributions can be due to factors that are either internal or external, stable or unstable, controllable or uncontrollable, intentional or unintentional, and global or specific. Someone with high self-esteem would take credit for his or her achievements and be proud of them. Thus, he or she would likely attribute them to internal, stable, controllable, intentional, and specific causes. The attributions are most likely specific rather than global because a person with high self-esteem will acknowledge that he or she isn't successful in everything. For example, a very successful athlete or CEO would not assume proficiency in brain surgery. Additional Information: Attributions for Success and Failure

Answer 26

Correct Answer is: B Studies show that, among individuals who are at high-risk for the AIDS virus, knowledge about AIDS is a better predictor of less risk-taking behavior than perceived peer norms. Thus, the correct choice ("providing knowledge to the group about AIDS") is the best answer. By contrast, among low-risk groups, perceived peer norms are a better predictor. So if this question was about the best strategy for low-risk groups, this option would have been a better answer: attempting to engender a group norm of disapproval for high-risk activity.

Answer 27

Correct Answer is: B Groupthink is an intensive tendency to seek agreement among members of the group which often results in poor decision-making. You should be familiar with the factors which contribute to groupthink, which include high cohesiveness, homogeneous backgrounds and values, and a strong, directive leader. Since increasing cohesiveness increases the pressure to conform, it is likely that decreasing the cohesiveness of a group should decrease the pressure to conform. In some circumstances, seeking consensus or unanimity can actually improve decision-making; however, it often becomes detrimental when the drive for consensus prevents full consideration of alternative decisions. Additional Information: Groupthink

Answer 28

Correct Answer is: B The tendency to react in a way that is opposite of what is requested or desired is referred to as psychological reactance. Reactance is most likely to occur when the individual feels that his/her personal freedom is being restricted, which would probably be the case in the situation described in the question. Additional Information: Psychological Reactance

Answer 29

Correct Answer is: B People engage in self-handicapping strategies in order to avoid an internal attribution for failure. When a person anticipates failure, explanations and behavioral reactions are developed that minimize ability deficits as possible attributions for the failure. Self-fulfilling prophecy* refers to a prediction made about some future behavior or event that modifies interactions so as to produce what is expected. Self-perception theory* is the idea that people observe themselves in order to figure out the reasons they act as they do; people infer what their internal states are by perceiving how they are acting in a given situation. Self-serving bias* refers to a class of attributional biases in which people tend to take credit for their successes and deny responsibility for their failures (* incorrect options). Additional Information: Self-Handicapping

Answer 30

Correct Answer is: C Social loafing often occurs when employees, particularly those in high-level positions, are evaluated based on a combined effort of the group, rather than for their individual contributions. It is also more likely to occur when tasks are simple and boring. Thus, to avoid social loafing an employer should insure that each employee's job is challenging and that they receive recognition for their individual efforts. This choice (providing clearly defined goals) is also a useful suggestion, but is more related to goal-setting theory than social loafing. Additional Information: Social Loafing

Answer 31

Correct Answer is: B Experimenters have found that just having a "partner" in a group liberates an individual to latch on to the partner and defy the wrong majority. Reducing the size isn't correct, since, if anything, reducing the size is likely to increase group cohesiveness and thereby increase conformity. The remaining choices also are incorrect because they would increase the pressure to conform. Additional Information: Factors That Affect Conformity to a Majority

Answer 32

Correct Answer is: C Bem's self-perception theory contradicts the more intuitive belief that we make conclusions about ourselves based solely on internal states. Based on the work of B. F. Skinner, Bem's self-perception theory proposes that when internal cues are weak or difficult to interpret, we rely on observations of our behavior and/or circumstances in which this behavior occurs to interpret our attitudes, emotions, and other internal states. Additional Information: Self-Perception Theory

Answer 33

Correct Answer is: A According to the learned helplessness model, depression is associated with an atttributional style whereby negative events are viewed as stable over time rather than transient, global rather than specific, and internal rather than external. Of the choices, only a lack of ability (correct answer) meets all three of these criteria. Additional Information: Reformulated Learned Helplessness

Answer 34

Correct Answer is: B Internalized racism refers to acceptance of negative messages about the abilities and intrinsic worth by members of the stigmatized races and manifests in embracing "whiteness" , self-devaluation, and resignation, helplessness, and hopelessness. personally mediated racism Personally mediated racism refers to prejudice and discrimination at the individual level, whether intentional or unintentional, and manifests as lack of respect, suspicion, devaluation, scapegoating and dehumanization. subtle racism Subtle racism refers to the beliefs, attitudes, and actions of individuals (rather than institutions) and is a less obvious form of racism, which has been proposed to have replaced overt or "old-fashioned" prejudice and discrimination. institutional racism Institutional racism is defined as, "the structures, policies, practices, and norms resulting in differential access to the goods, services, and opportunities of society by race"¦ often evident as inaction in the face of need" and manifests in restriction or denial of material conditions and access to power to members of minority groups (Jones, 2000).

Answer 35

Correct Answer is: A This is one of those questions that would even cause social psychologists to despair. Nevertheless, a very similar question has been on the examination. You would have chosen the correct answer ("has younger siblings") if you were familiar with this option ("comes from a large extended family"). Whiting and J. Whiting's study of six cultures. They found that responsibility for the welfare of others was the most important factor in the development of altruism (Children of Six Cultures, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1975). comes from a large extended family. This is incorrect; Cohen's study found altruism linked more to a nuclear than an extended family structure (R. Cohen, Altruism: Human, cultural, or what? Journal of Social Issues, 28(3), 39-57). is inherently wealthy. has at least one older sibling. These two options have not been found to correlate with any of the research.

Answer 36

Correct Answer is: D The self-serving bias refers to the tendency to attribute one's own successes to internal factors and one's failures to external factors--i.e., to take credit for one's successes and place blame for one's failures. Research shows that the self-serving bias does not operate the same way across cultures, and in fact may be reversed in more collectivist cultures. For example, a study of Japanese students found that on a difficult memory task, they were more likely to attribute their failures to internal factors and their successes to external factors. Some authors therefore have concluded that a modesty bias rather than a self-serving bias occurs in some cultures. The other choices are true of the self-serving bias. Self-esteem mediates its likelihood of operating; those with high self-esteem are more likely to display it than those with low self-esteem. it may be present both under conditions of anonymity and in the presence of an audience. And as stated by this choice, it has been shown equally likely to operate under conditions of anonymity and in the presence of an audience (however, in collectivist cultures, conditions of anonymity may evoke it when a modesty bias might otherwise be more likely). Finally, expectation of future improvement is another mediating variable--attribution of failures to internal factors is more likely when a person expects future successes. Additional Information: Self-Serving Bias

Answer 37

Correct Answer is: B The fundamental attribution error is the general tendency to overly attribute the behavior of others to dispositional (personality-based) factors, as opposed to contextual, or situationally based factors. In this case, the observer apparently thinks the co-worker's irritation at other co-workers reflects a stable personality trait and is therefore surprised to see the co-worker acting differently in a different situation. Therefore, the observer is displaying the fundamental attribution error. Regarding the other choices, the actor-observer effect is similar to the fundamental attribution error; it refers to the tendency to attribute one's own behavior to situational factors and the behavior of others to dispositional factors. Because there is no reference to how the observer views his own behavior, the fundamental attribution error is a better choice here. Confirmation bias is the tendency to seek and interpret information that confirms one preconceptions and avoid information that does not confirm them. And cognitive dissonance refers to a theorized drive individuals have to reduce discomfort caused by holding to conflicting cognitions; this construct has been used to explain the results of studies in which individuals change their beliefs to be more consistent with how they have behaved in the study. Additional Information: Fundamental Attribution Error

Answer 38

Correct Answer is: D In the literature on gender stereotypes, a distinction is often made between the descriptive and prescriptive aspects of gender stereotypes. Descriptive stereotypes are those that involve generalizations about what women are; prescriptive stereotypes involve generalizations about what women should be. A criticism of a woman for engaging in the exact same behavior as a man for the exact same purpose is a prescriptive stereotype, because it implies that the woman should be acting differently just because she is a woman.

Answer 39

Correct Answer is: D The Health Belief Model (HBM), which was developed initially to understand why people seemed unwilling to use preventative measures and screening tests available, is based on psychological and behavioral theory. The four dimensions the model considers in the influence of health-related decision making and behavior are: perceived susceptibility; perceived severity; perceived benefits; and perceived barriers. The dimension identified as the most influential variable for predicting and explaining health-related decision-making and actions is perceived barriers. The effectiveness of the action (screening, preventative care) and the perceptions of inconvenience, expense, unpleasantness, dangerousness, etc., are examples of perceived barriers. Additional Information: Health Belief Model (HBM)

Answer 40

Correct Answer is: A Deindividuation, which occurs under conditions of anonymity, refers to the loss of a person's identity and a loosening of normal restraints against deviant behavior. It has been offered as an explanation for mob violence, and it describes what is happening in the question. social power. Social power refers to the means by which a person is influenced by another (i.e., expert, legitimate, reward, coercive, or referent power). Here, the person is being influenced by a crowd rather than another individual, so deindividuation is a more accurate term. social comparison. Social comparison refers to the process by which we evaluate our opinions and abilities by comparing them to those of others. reactance. Reactance refers to the theory that a person will react against perceived threats to freedom by choosing a course of action that is the opposite of what he or she is being pressured to do. Additional Information: Deindividuation

Answer 41

Correct Answer is: A In the literature on the psychology of groups, a distinction between additive, conjunctive, disjunctive, and compensatory tasks is sometimes made. Additive tasks permit the addition of individual efforts so that the outcome is a combination of individual contributions. This is the type of task described by the question: The combined efforts of all group members will determine if the tasks are completed and team members receive a bonus. Let's briefly go through the other type of tasks: On conjunctive tasks, everyone must achieve a given goal in order for the task to be complete. As a result, task performance depends on the performance of the least competent group member. On disjunctive tasks, the group must choose one of many alternative ways to do the task. Thus, performance on a task depends on the performance of the most competent group member, because if one person can complete the task, the task gets completed. Finally, on compensatory tasks, the average performance of all group members represents the group's product. Additional Information: Group Tasks

Answer 42

Correct Answer is: A Two of the responses ("competitiveness" and "group norms") should have been pretty easy to eliminate since it's not likely that the behavior of ants is going to be affected by competitiveness or group norms. It's also questionable whether imitation would be a factor. That leaves arousal, which is the correct answer. Apparently, having others around us while we work increases our arousal which can have a positive or negative effect on performance, depending on the situation. Additional Information: Social Facilitation and Social Inhibition

Answer 43

Correct Answer is: D Referent power is based on a person's attraction to or desire to be like the holder of power. Coercive power* results from the holder's ability to punish others. Reward power* results from the holder's ability to reward others. Although a therapist could provide some reward power through his or her responsiveness, this would not be as salient as referent power. Legitimate power* is based on the holder's valid authority, for example, the police (* incorrect options). Finally, there's another type of power - expert power, which was not offered in the question, but which could apply to a therapeutic relationship. Expert power is based on the belief that the power holder has special knowledge or expertise. Additional Information: Bases of Social Power

Answer 44

Correct Answer is: C Contrary to what the developers of brainstorming predicted, the research has found that brainstorming alone is better than brainstorming as a group. In other words, you'll obtain more creative solutions when four people brainstorm alone than when they brainstorm as a team. Additional Information: Strategies for Improving Group Performance

Answer 45

Correct Answer is: A According to the Elaboration Likelihood Model, persuasive messages can be communicated via a central route or a peripheral route. The central route is used when listeners think carefully about the contents of the message. When listeners do not think carefully about an argument's content, they rely more on superficial (peripheral) cues. Peripheral cues include the messengers' perceived attractiveness or expertise, and the receivers' mood. A positive mood, and in some cases fear, has been shown to increase the likelihood of attitude change. Advertisers and politicians often use strategies designed to elicit either a positive mood or fear in order to increase the persuasiveness of their message. Additional Information: Elaboration Likelihood Model

Answer 46

Correct Answer is: C The notion of state dependence predicts that memory is maximized when we are in the same emotional state during learning and recall.

Answer 47

Correct Answer is: C Rosenhan's famous "pseudopatient study" involved 8 confederates who presented themselves to mental hospitals complaining of hearing voices. All were admitted to the hospital and7 of the 8 were given the diagnosis "Schizophrenia." Once admitted, they all stopped feigning any symptoms and behaved normally. Nevertheless, their hospital stays ranged from7 to 52 days with an average stay of 19 days and although nearly one-third of the other patients recognized the pseudopatients as "normal," none of the hospital staff recognized them as such. Additional Information: Pseudopatient Study

Answer 48

Correct Answer is: C This may be a difficult question for a number of reasons. First, it requires knowledge of two content areas: the function of a consultant, and the bases of social power, as defined by French and Raven. A consultant is an expert or specialist who is hired on an ad-hoc basis to solve a specific, work-related problem. French and Raven described five bases of social power -- legitimate, expert, referent, coercive, and reward. This brings us to the second reason why this question may be somewhat difficult. Consultants clearly rely on expert power, since they are hired as a specialists whose advice is followed because they are considered to be authorities on the matter at hand. It is not so clear that they have referent power, though it is possible, since consultants may serve as respected role models for their clients. However, since this correct choice is the only one which includes expert power, it must be right. It is also helpful to go through the other bases of social power and rule them out as applying to a consultant. Consultants do not have legitimate power because they do not have administrative authority; that is, the client is free to reject any of the consultant's suggestions. Moreover, the consultant holds neither coercive nor reward power, since the consultant's role is not to punish or reward the client. Additional Information: Bases of Social Power

Answer 49

Correct Answer is: C Through the use of psychological testing, Morgan (1978) found that athletes scored significantly lower in negative mental health traits such as tension, depression, anger, fatigue and confusion, but significantly higher for vigor compared to U.S. norms. He referred to the mood characteristics of accomplished athletes as the "iceberg profile." Morgan's presented correlation between exercise and a decrease in anxiety has been confirmed in subsequent studies in both serious and recreational athletes. (See: Morgan WP. The credulous-sceptical argument in perspective. In: Straub WF, editor. An analysis of athlete behavior. Ithaca (NY): Movement Publications, 1978: 218-27; Raglin, J.S. (2001). Psychological factors in sport performance: the Mental Health Model revisited. Sports Med. 31(12):875-90.)

Answer 50

Correct Answer is: A Research by Weiner and others has suggested that people who have high expectations for future performance (such as high achievers) tend to attribute their failure to a lack of effort. Effort is an internal, unstable, and controllable factor. Most research suggests that of these dimensions, stability is the most important in expectations for future achievement. The idea is that, if you attribute failure to an unstable cause, you must expect that you will not fail in most situations. Additional Information: Attributions for Success and Failure

Answer 51

Correct Answer is: C An illusory correlation is the tendency to overestimate the association between variables that are uncorrelated or only slightly correlated. Because the man's presence at the baseball game is unlikely to affect the outcome, his belief that it would cause the team to lose would be considered an illusory correlation. delusion There is insufficient evidence to indicate that the man's statement represents a delusion, which is "a false belief based on incorrect inference about external reality that is firmly sustained despite what almost everyone else believes....and obvious proof or evidence to the contrary". fundamental attribution bias A fundamental attribution bias refers to the tendency to overestimate dispositional (personality) factors and underestimate situational factors in explaining the behavior of others. self-fulfilling prophesy Self-fulfilling prophesy effect occurs when our expectations about another person affect that person's behavior. Additional Information: Illusory Correlation

Answer 52

Correct Answer is: B The effects of crowding are mediated by a person's level of distraction; for example, a person viewing a boring documentary in a crowded movie theater has been found to feel the effects of crowding more than a person watching an interesting movie in the crowded theater. Women are more adversely affected by crowding than men. Contrary to this option, men tend to be more adversely affected by crowding than women. Crowding always has a negative impact on individuals' affect. Contrary to this option, crowding does not always have a negative impact on affect; rather, it tends to enhance whatever a person is already feeling (e.g., a person at a crowded party or sports event may experience enhanced positive feelings). Individuals are more willing to discuss intimate topics in crowded situations vs. uncrowded situations. And common sense should have allowed you to eliminate this because people are less willing to discuss intimate details in crowded situations. Additional Information: Effects of Crowding

Answer 53

Correct Answer is: A Psychological reactance refers to the phenomenon whereby pressure to behave in a particular way causes individuals to behave in the opposite manner. Reactance occurs when a person perceives that his or her freedom of choice or sense of control is being threatened by attempted influence. In this question, it's possible that many people watch the show due to psychological reactance. They feel that their freedom of choice is threatened by the fundamentalist group, and they react by doing the opposite of what the group wants them to do. Additional Information: Psychological Reactance

Answer 54

Correct Answer is: A Research by N. R. Crick and K. A. Dodge (A review and reformulation of social information-processing mechanisms in children's social adjustment, Psychological Bulletin, 1994, 115,74-101), for example, found that aggressive children often misinterpret the ambiguous or prosocial behaviors of peers as hostile in intent and respond in aggressive ways. The peers then respond negatively, thereby, creating a self-fulfilling prophecy effect. Additional Information: Origins of Aggression

Answer 55

Correct Answer is: B The question describes social loafing. The theory of social facilitation suggests the mere presence of others facilitates (enhances) performance. More specifically, if the dominant response is the right one, then the presence of others will enhance performance and when the dominant response is incorrect, the presence of others results in social inhibition.

Answer 56

Correct Answer is: C The tendency of interviewers to allow one prominent piece of information about a job applicant to set the tone for the whole interview is referred to as the halo effect. Halo can be negative (i.e., a qualified applicant given low ratings because of a criminal history), or positive, (i.e., an unqualified applicant given high ratings because of being physically attractive). similarity effect The tendency of interviewers to prefer applicants who are like themselves (i.e., Yale graduates have a slight tendency to hire Yale graduates) is referred to as similarity effect. framing effect The tendency of interviewers to judge information as either positive or negative depending on the context in which it is presented is called the framing effect. In other words, the same piece of information can be presented or framed in many different ways. negative salience The tendency of interviewers to pay more attention to and more time probing for reasons to disqualify the applicant than reasons to hire the applicant, or to pay more attention to negative information than positive information, is referred to as negative salience. Additional Information: Halo Effect

Answer 57

Correct Answer is: B Kenneth and his wife Mamie Clark conducted the famous Doll Study which found that two-thirds of African-American children preferred playing with white dolls and perceived the brown dolls as "bad". During the famous Brown vs. Board of Education (1954) case, this research was cited as evidence that segregation leads to low self-esteem in African-American children.

Answer 58

Correct Answer is: B Confirmatory bias or "confirmation bias" is the tendency to seek, interpret, and create information that verifies our existing beliefs. Self-serving bias is the tendency to attribute one's successes to internal factors and one's failures to external factors. The fundamental attribution bias or error refers to the tendency to overestimate dispositional (personality) factors and underestimate situational factors in explaining a person's behavior. Self verification theory proposes that people seek confirmation of their self-concept. Additional Information: Confirmation Bias

Answer 59

Correct Answer is: C Cognitive dissonance theory predicts that, when we have two conflicting cognitions (e.g., I like the club but they don't want me"), we'll be motivated to reduce the tension that this causes by changing one of our cognitions. Since the student can't change the sorority's decision in this situation, she's likely to change her attitude toward the sorority. Additional Information: Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Answer 60

Correct Answer is: D Loss aversion is one component in Kahneman and Tversky's prospect theory. Loss aversion refers to the tendency to base decisions more heavily on the fear of loss than the hope of gain. For example, if you heard from a friend that his mechanic did a good job fixing his car but another friend told you that the same mechanic did a poor job fixing his car, you would be less likely to risk using that mechanic. The other answer choices are terms that you should be familiar with. Risky shift* occurs when a group makes a decision that is riskier than would have been made by the members individually. Adverse impact* occurs when the hiring rate for a minority group is less than 80% of the hiring rate of the majority group. Satisficing* refers to the decision-making style of using the minimal amount of information to reach a "good enough" solution (* incorrect options). Additional Information: Loss aversion

Answer 61

Correct Answer is: D Although some studies suggest that cultural differences in the need for personal space are not as great as once believed, this is still the best answer. For instance, research has illustrated that adult Americans generally require more personal space than adults in other cultures. Additional Information: Personal Space

Answer 62

Correct Answer is: D In the Prisoner's Dilemma game, it was found that people tend to compete straight away. They take a risk. This supports the pessimistic view of human nature: outside of our family and reference group we tend to be suspicious and hostile. Additional Information: Cooperation

Answer 63

Correct Answer is: B Recent research has found "negative emotions", particularly, anger and hostility to be most predictive of heart disease in individuals with Type A personality. Additional Information: Type A Behavior and Heart Attacks

Answer 64

Correct Answer is: C The "door-in-the-face" technique involves making an initial request that is so large that it is sure to be rejected and then coming back with a second, more reasonable request. The "foot-in-the-door" technique involves moving from a small request to a larger one. Low-balling involves securing an agreement with a request and then increasing the size of that request by revealing its hidden costs. All three of these techniques have been shown to increase compliance. On the other hand, psychological reactance, a phenomenon identified by Brehm (1966), states compliance and conformity are less likely to occur in situations where the person feels his or her freedom to choose is being threatened. Group pressures can sometimes produce the opposite of conformity or compliance and if a person perceives that his or her sense of control or freedom of choice is threatened, there will be an attempt to re-establish that freedom - i.e., to act in the opposite direction of the attempted influence. Additional Information: Psychological Reactance

Answer 65

Correct Answer is: B It is a person's perception of control or ability to cope that determines his or her response to stress. When a person believes he or she has no control over the situation or does not have the necessary coping mechanisms, stress will have a more detrimental effect.

Answer 66

Correct Answer is: B Group polarization is the tendency of individuals who start off with similar views to end up with a more extreme position after group discussion. Social loafing* refers to decreased individual productivity that occurs when the size of the work group increases. Social facilitation* refers to improved performance on tasks due to the presence of other people. Negative framing* refers to presenting a problem in negative terms (* incorrect options). Additional Information: Group Polarization

Answer 67

Correct Answer is: A Ellen Berscheid's Emotion-in-Relationships Model proposes that positive and negative emotions are most likely to occur in a relationship when the partner's behavior interrupts the individual's typical on-going behaviors. Thus, when things are running smoothly, there are fewer interruptions and less intense emotions. Although the partners are highly interdependent during this period, they are also more likely to underestimate their emotional investment. experience the most intense positive emotions after several years into the relationship This choice reflects the opposite of Berscheid's model because there are more surprises or interruptions to the status quo in the early stage of a relationship -- which results in the most positive (and negative) emotions. focus on attributions which are external to their partners and themselves to understand their relationship This is incorrect because Berscheid suggests that partners (and researchers) tend to underestimate the importance of external situational factors in a relationship (E. Berscheid, Interpersonal relationships. In L. W. Porter & M. R. Rosenzweig (Eds.), Annual review of psychology, 1994, (pp. 79-129). Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews). Additional Information: Emotion-in-Relationships Model

Answer 68

Correct Answer is: A An approach-approach conflict occurs when a person is faced with two equally attractive and conflicting alternatives (e.g., "should I buy the Corvette or should I buy the Porsche?"). Once a person makes a choice, the tendency is to find the chosen alternative more attractive and the unchosen alternative less attractive. This is consistent with the phenomenon of cognitive dissonance, whereby a person is motivated to reduce psychological tension between competing attitudes by altering one of those attitudes. Additional Information: Lewin's Field Theory

Answer 69

Correct Answer is: B The actor-observer effect is the tendency to overestimate situational factors and underestimate dispositional factors regarding one's own behaviors and to underestimate situational factors and overestimate dispositional factors in others. self-serving bias Self-serving bias is the tendency to take credit for our successes and to blame situational factors for our failures. social comparison effect This is not a type of attribution bias. projective identification Projective identification is a defense mechanism in which one or more parts of the self are falsely attributed to another, which are then unconsciously accepted by the recipient, and the projector then identifies with the projected part in the other. Additional Information: Actor-Observer Effect

Answer 70

Correct Answer is: A Lewin focused on the individual's "life space" in the immediate present. Although he did not ignore the past or the future, he believed that they were important only to the extent that they had an impact on the individual's current situation. Additional Information: Lewin's Field Theory

Answer 71

Correct Answer is: A This is a famous piece of social psychological research. People are presented with a situation where, if they cooperate, they each will receive moderate rewards. If they compete, one will receive a big reward and the other will receive nothing. What happens is that people tend to compete straight away. They take a risk. This supports the pessimistic view of human nature: outside of our family and reference group we tend to be suspicious and hostile. Additional Information: Cooperation

Answer 72

Correct Answer is: C This question is referring to the notion of inoculation, which was derived from the medical usage of the term where it refers to exposing people to a weak form of a virus so that they are resistant to the virus in the future. In terms of resistance to persuasion, inoculation here refers to exposing a person to a weak argument against one's current position. Additional Information: Inoculation Theory

Answer 73

Correct Answer is: A This question references research about brainstorming, a technique in which people in a group are encouraged to generate all the ideas they can, without worrying about evaluation or censure. This technique is generally not too effective; it typically produces fewer ideas and the quality is poorer. Additional Information: Strategies for Improving Group Performance

Answer 74

Correct Answer is: B The fundamental attribution bias (error) refers to the tendency of people to overestimate the contribution of dispositional factors to an actor's behavior. In the situation described in the question, the actress's fans attribute her good deeds to her rather than to the role she plays in the TV series. Additional Information: Fundamental Attribution Error

Answer 75

Correct Answer is: A Although group polarization and the risky shift also refer to poor decision-making, their antecedents have not been as well-defined as those associated with groupthink (i.e., only groupthink has been linked theoretically and empirically to an incomplete consideration of alternatives and consequences, high group cohesiveness, etc.). Additional Information: Groupthink

Answer 76

Correct Answer is: C According to the Elaboration Likelihood Model, there are two routes of communication: a central route and a peripheral route. A listener is most susceptible to persuasion via the peripheral route when the communicator is appealing (e.g., is of high status), the listener is uninvolved with the message or is distracted, and/or the message appeals to fear. Additional Information: Elaboration Likelihood Model

Answer 77

Correct Answer is: C The subject is most likely to rush to aid someone in distress when all alone in the lab; less likely when there is a stranger or a friend in the room; and least likely when there is a passive confederate in the same room who has been instructed to ignore the whole thing. There is no "diffusion of responsibility" or "pluralistic ignorance" when the subject is alone. Additional Information: Bystander Effect

Answer 78

Correct Answer is: C Studies have shown that threats of retaliation for aggressive behavior work in some situations but not in others. When the retaliator is of high status or has a great deal of power, threats are more likely to suppress aggression. However threats are more likely to increase aggression if the retaliator has previously provoked the person.

Answer 79

Correct Answer is: C In a centralized communication network, all communication goes through one person (usually the person in charge). This type of network is most effective when the problem or task is easy; i.e., it does not require a lot of communication among workers to be resolved or accomplished. are less effective but more accepted by employees. are more effective and more accepted by employees. We can rule out these two options not only because these networks are not automatically more or less effective than decentralized networks (again, it depends on the nature of the task), but also because it is usually the leader, not the employees, who prefers a centralized network. Additional Information: Centralized and Decentralized Communication Networks

Answer 80

Correct Answer is: A According to Festinger's social comparison theory, individuals evaluate their own opinions, perceptions, reactions, and beliefs by comparing these opinions, etc., to those of individuals in a reference group. Members of this reference group are those who are similar to the perceiver in terms of beliefs, attitudes, and values. Additional Information: Social Comparison Theory

Answer 81

Correct Answer is: A The phenomenon of groupthink was studied extensively by Irving Janis, who developed the notion based on his post-hoc studies of poor decision-making in history. He defined groupthink as "a mode of thinking that people engage in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group, when the members' strivings for unanimity override their motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action." In other words, in highly cohesive groups, groupthink occurs when group members are more concerned with agreeing with each other than acting rationally and evaluating alternatives. As stated by Janis' definition, groupthink involves the group's failure to analyze and evaluate its decisions. Other signs of groupthink include illusions of invulnerability that lead to more risky decisions than would otherwise be the case; fear among group members of expressing dissenting opinions; rationalizing warnings that challenge the group's assumptions; unquestioned belief in the goodness of the group; stereotyped beliefs about people who oppose the group; pressure for conformity; an illusion among group members that their beliefs are unanimous; and the emergence of self-appointed "mindguards", or group members who shield the group from dissenting information. Additional Information: Groupthink

Answer 82

Correct Answer is: D Scripts are schemas that tell us what sequence of actions to expect in certain settings. For example, when you go to a restaurant, your restaurant script causes you to expect that someone will greet you, you will sit down at a table, a server will take your order, etc., in that particular order. You would not expect them to give you the check as soon as you sat down, or to ask you to go to the kitchen to cook your own meal.

Answer 83

Correct Answer is: D The introduction of a superordinate goal, one that requires cooperation to accomplish, was found to be the most effective way of reducing or alleviating intergroup hostility and competition in Sherif et al.'s "Robber's Cave" study. Additional Information: Robbers Cave Study

Answer 84

Correct Answer is: D Thinking about your own experience in situations where the goal has both positive and negative qualities (the licensing exam perhaps?) may have helped you answer this question. As the distance between you and the goal decreases, the strength of the approach response and avoidance response increases. However, the "avoidance gradient" is steeper than the "approach gradient" so that, eventually, the avoidance response is much stronger. (When this happens, you might start thinking about taking the exam next time or changing careers!) Additional Information: Lewin's Field Theory

Answer 85

Correct Answer is: A Studies on heterosexuals attitudes toward gay and lesbians indicate that older age is predictive of higher levels of sexual prejudice along with high levels of authoritarianism*, fundamentalist religious views* and male gender*, especially toward gays (versus lesbians) (* incorrect options). (See: Herek, G. M. (2000). The psychology of sexual prejudice, Current directions in psychological science, 9(1), 19-22.)

Answer 86

Correct Answer is: B Research shows that messages that are too high in fear repel people, whereas messages too low in emotional content could potentially bore recipients. Thus, persuasive messages that evoke a moderate amount of fear tend to be the most effective. However, evoking an emotional response is usually not enough to persuade people--persuasive messages that evoke moderate fear are most effective when they provide a solution to the issue that evokes the fear. For example, scaring alcoholics about the effects of alcoholism on their health will likely not be effective unless a solution, such as information regarding the effectiveness of AA and how to find a meeting, is also provided.

Answer 87

Correct Answer is: C The question describes the Pygmalion effect. The Barnum effect*, also known as the Forer effect, is defined as the tendency for people to accept very vague or general feedback, such as horoscopes, as accurate. Unconscious inference* is Helmholtz's term for perception that occurs outside of conscious awareness. The tend-and-befriend response* is hypothesized to be typical for females; stressors prompt females to protect their offspring and join social groups to reduce vulnerability (* incorrect options). Additional Information: Experimenter Bias

Answer 88

Correct Answer is: A Self Verification theory proposes that people need and seek confirmation of their self-concept, regardless of whether their self-concept is positive or negative. Thus, people prefer to be right rather than happy. According to this theory, a person who dances poorly would prefer to be told so (assuming the other's evaluation matches the person's self evaluation). Additional Information: Self-Verification Theory

Answer 89

Correct Answer is: A The catharsis model of aggression holds that an aggressive act (or witnessing an aggressive act) can reduce a person's inclination to engage in other aggressive acts. The idea, first put forth by Dollard and his colleagues as an outgrowth of the frustration-aggression hypothesis, is that activities such as observing fictional violence or making hostile jokes could drain energy away from violent tendencies. However, this theory has not been supported by empirical research, which suggests that engaging in or witnessing aggression may actually increases aggressive behavior. Additional Information: Catharsis

Answer 90

Correct Answer is: A Most of the research on group heterogeneity has focused on its impact on creativity and problem-solving and has found it to have beneficial effects on both.

Answer 91

Correct Answer is: D According to terror management theory (TMT), individuals utilize two things to manage the terror associated with the fear of death: a cultural worldview and self-esteem. consensual validation Consensual validation, or others' agreement with one's own worldviews and self-concept, is critical for the effectiveness of cultural worldviews and self-esteem. An outside group, person or differing ideas that clash may threaten the validation system (religion, political ideology) that provides a sense of security. mortality salience Studies have found increased mortality salience, encountering or recently thinking about death, results in people strongly connecting to their worldview elements like religious beliefs or national pride and increased emergence of prejudices against an outside group in addition to creating a longing for structure, order, acceptance of quick, easy answers to problems and foregoing careful consideration of all options. (See: Pyszczynski, T., Solomon, S., & Greenberg, J. (2003). In the Wake of 9/11: The Psychology of Terror. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. and Solomon, S., Greenberg, J. & Pyszczynski, T. (1991). "A Terror Management Theory of Social Behavior: The Psychological Functions of Self-Esteem and Cultural Worldviews." Advances in Experimental Psychology-Social Psychology, 24, Zanna, M.P. (Ed).)

Answer 92

Correct Answer is: D Rosen and Tesser (1970) conducted research on message transmission in different groups of people to determine how individuals respond to relaying a message that may be displeasing. They proposed there is emotional stress placed on the messenger, predicated on a fear of being infected with the emotional distress of the recipient or of having to assume an emotional state congruent with the bad news, and for this reason there may be a decrease in the transmittance of bad news. Their findings, which have been subsequently supported by others, indicated that bad news is transmitted less frequently than good news. MUM refers to the tendency to keep 'Mum about Undesirable Messages' (See: Rosen, S. & Tesser, A. (1970). On reluctance to communicate undesirable information: The MUM effect. Sociometry. 33, 253 - 263.) minority influence Minority influence refers to attempts by a minority to alter of attitudes and beliefs on part of the majority typically involving a break with the accepted norms and conventions; inspiring majority resistance; and creating a cognitive conflict for the majority. The effectiveness of minority influence depends on the extent that it exhibits behavioral consistency, persistence and internal coherence as well as congruency with the prevailing Zeitgeist, that is with values, norms and goals salient for the majority. group think Groupthink is an intensive tendency to seek agreement among members of the group, which prevents full consideration of alternative decisions, to the point where the decisions reached may become irrational. Factors which contribute to groupthink include high cohesiveness, homogeneous backgrounds and values, and a strong, directive leader.

Answer 93

Correct Answer is: B According to Hollander (1985) in order to successfully challenge the majority opinions of a group, a person must first conform to the group in order to establish credibility as a competent insider. By becoming accepted members of the group, we accumulate idiosyncracy credits which are like brownie points. Additional Information: Idiosyncrasy Credits

Answer 94

Correct Answer is: B Research suggests that positive and negative life events can create great joy or distress but don't really affect a person's long-term sense of satisfaction and well-being. Only recent life-events seem to influence a person's well-being, and this effect drops off in about three months. For example, lottery winners have not been found to be significantly happier than non-winners.

Answer 95

Correct Answer is: C Referent power is based on a person's attraction to or desire to be like the holder of power. Expert power is based on the belief that the power holder has special knowledge or expertise. Coercive power results from the holder's ability to punish others. And finally, reward power, results from the holder's ability to reward others. Additional Information: Bases of Social Power

9- Social Psychology Flashcards

(119 cards)