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A level Psychology > 4.1.2 Memory > Flashcards

4.1.2 Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

What is memory?

A

Process by which we retain information about events that happened in the past

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2
Q

Name the 3 jobs of memory

A
  1. Encoding
  2. Storage
  3. Retrieval
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3
Q

What is meant by encoding?

A

Transforming sensory inputs so it can registered in memory

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4
Q

What is meant by storage?

A

Retaining or holding info in memory until needed

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5
Q

What is meant by retrieval?

A

Locating info which has been stored and extracting it from memory

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6
Q

What does the multi-store model explain?

A

Explains how information flows from 1 storage system to another

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7
Q

Who made the multi-store model?

A

Atkinson & Shiffrin

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8
Q

Draw the multi-store model

A
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9
Q

What is the sensory memory register?

A

Store that contains information received through senses

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10
Q

What is the duration for the sensory memory register?

A

Limited but varies

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11
Q

Describe the research into the duration of the sensory memory register

A
  • Presented identical auditory messages to both ears of participants with slight delay between messages
  • Participants noticed messages were identical & there was delay of 2 seconds or less
  • Suggests echoic store has max duration of 2 seconds
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12
Q

What is coding like for the sensory memory register?

A

5 different systems

  • Echoic store - processes auditory info
  • Iconic store - visual
  • Haptic store - tactile
  • Gustatory store - taste
  • Olfactory store - smell
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13
Q

Describe the research into coding of the sensory memory register

A
  • Crowder found evidence for these different forms of storage
    • Iconic store = milliseconds
    • Echoic store = up to 3 seconds
  • Supports idea of info being coded into different sensory forms
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14
Q

What is the capacity for the sensory memory register?

A

Very large capacity (unprocessed info)

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15
Q

Describe the research into the capacity of the sensory memory register

A
  • Flashed 3x4 gird of letters for 1/20 second
  • Asked participants to recall letters of 1 row
  • He would sound a tone (high, medium, low) to indicate which row to recall
  • Recall of letters = high ∴ capacity of SR is large
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16
Q

What is short term memory (STM)?

A

Store for events in present or immediate past

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17
Q

What is the duration for the STM?

A

Short, 18-30s

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18
Q

Describe the research into the duration of the STM

Method

A
  • Nonsense trigrams were read to participants (3 nonsensical constants e.g. ZNB)
  • Then asked to count backwards in 3s from large-digit number (don’t to prevent rehearsal and transfer of information into LTM)
  • Instructed to count backwards for anywhere from 3 up to 18 seconds
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19
Q

Describe the research into the duration of the STM

Findings

A
  • Short period of time
  • 18-30 seconds
  • (3 seconds = 90% of them recall trigram correctly, 18 seconds = 5%)
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20
Q

Describe the research into the duration of the STM

Conclusion

A

Duration in STM = short, lasting less than 30 seconds

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21
Q

Describe the research into the duration of the STM

Evaluations

A
  • Unlikely to represent how real-life memory work
    • Recalling nonsense trigrams = lacks mundane realism
    • Might be that real memory can only last up to 30 seconds
  • Methodological issues
    • Different trigrams were given to participants on each trial = interference could have occurred = more difficult to recall items
    • Might be reason for poor recall rather than suggesting it’s due to short duration in memory
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22
Q

What is coding like for the STM?

A

Acoustically

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23
Q

Describe the research into coding of the STM

Method

A

Baddeley

  • 75 participants presented with 4 word lists, repeated 4 times
    1. List A: Acoustically similar
    2. List B: Acoustically dissimilar
    3. List C: Semantically similar
    4. List D: Semantically dissimilar
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24
Q

Describe the research into coding of the STM

Findings

A

Acoustically similar list had lowest recall - 10%

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25
Q

Describe the research into coding of the STM

Conclusion

A
  • Due to acoustic confusion = shows importance of sound in STM
  • ∴ STM encodes acoustically
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26
Q

Describe the research into coding of the STM

Evaluations

A
  • Pro: Cause and effect
  • Cons
    • Lacks ecological validity
    • Acoustic is not only coding process
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27
Q

What is the capacity for the STM?

A

Limited capacity

5-9 items

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28
Q

Describe the research into the capacity of the STM

Method

A
  1. Presented with increasingly longer lists of digits or letters
  2. Had to recall them in right order
  3. 3.5% recall = reached their capacity
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29
Q

Describe the research into the capacity of the STM

Findings

A

Average 9 numbers and 7 letters

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30
Q

Describe the research into the capacity of the STM

Conclusion

A
  • STM = limited storage capacity
  • Memory for numbers better than memory for letters
    • ∵ 10 potential digits VS 26 letters
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31
Q

Describe the research into the capacity of the STM

Evaluations

A
  • Lack of ecological validity
    • Experimental tasks e.g. recalling letters = little relevance to everyday life
  • Individual differences in STM capacity
    • Research found that capacity ranged from 5-20 items, depending on whether people’s reading ability was poor or advanced
    • ∴ it’s limiting to say capacity is 5-9 items
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32
Q

What is long term memory (LTM)?

A

Store for events that happened in distant past

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33
Q

What is the duration for the LTM?

A

Unlimited

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34
Q

Describe the research into the duration of the LTM

Method

A

American adults were used & their memory were tested by…

  1. Free call of name of classmates
  2. Photo: had to identify former classmates
  3. A name recognition test
  4. A name and photo matching test
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35
Q

Describe the research into the duration of the LTM

Findings

A
  • 90% accuracy for face and name recognition
    • Left school 34 years ago
  • After 48 years, declined 80% for names and 40% faces
  • When doing free recall test = recall less accurate
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36
Q

Describe the research into the duration of the LTM

Conclusion

A

Memories can last for long period of time = but requires use of cues to enhance recall

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37
Q

Describe the research into the duration of the LTM

Evaluations

A
  • High ecological validity
    • ∵ realistic nature: participants recall real classmates = real test of memory
  • American participants = can’t say long duration in memory is universal
    • As it could vary between cultures
  • Lack some important controls
    • e.g. could have been contact with friends or looked at yearbook
    • Which could explain recall was good
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38
Q

What is the coding like for the LTM?

A

Semantically

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39
Q

Describe the research into coding of the LTM

Method

A

Baddeley

  1. Followed similar procedure
  2. Presented with one of 4 word lists
  3. Before recall participants were given 20 min interval in which they conducted another tasks
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40
Q

Describe the research into coding of the LTM

Findings

A

Semantically similar list had lowest recall

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41
Q

Describe the research into coding of the LTM

Conclusion

A

List C = recalled least efficiently = semantic confusion in LTM suggests how LTM codes info

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42
Q

Describe the research into coding of the LTM

Evaluations

A
  • Findings make cognitive sense
    • If you had to recall book you read, remember plot rather than the words
    • Coding in LTM does work on semantic basis
  • Artificial nature
    • Can’t be applied to real-life memory
    • ∴ cannot definitely say LTM does code semantically
  • Different ways of coding
    • Too simplistic to assume all LTM codes on semantic basis
    • i.e. what about taste and smell
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43
Q

What is the capacity for the LTM?

A

Large

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44
Q

Describe the research into the capacity of the LTM

Method

A
  1. Presented thoroughly 3000 of different scenes (3 seconds each)
  2. Given tests, to see if they recognised these images
    • e.g. presented 2 images with participants & had chose that one that had been shown to them
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45
Q

Describe the research into the capacity of the LTM

Findings

A

Up to 96% accuracy for 3000 pictures

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46
Q

Describe the research into the capacity of the LTM

Conclusions

A

Due to good recall rates, appears that LTM has large capacity and can hold lots of info

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47
Q

Describe the research into the capacity of the LTM

Evaluations

A
  • Only one type of stimuli (visual) was used
  • Controlled variables allow for replication
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48
Q

Who made the working memory model?

A

Baddeley and Hitch

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49
Q

What is the working memory model essentially?

A

Same as MSM but replaced STM with 4 stores

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50
Q

Draw the working memory model

A
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51
Q

Describe the central executive

A
  • Acts a filter
    • Processes information in all sensory forms
    • Then directs info to other ‘slave’ systems for processing
    • & collects their response
  • It’s selective when deciding what to do
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52
Q

What’s the capacity of the central executive?

A

Limited capacity - 1 piece of info at a time

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53
Q

Describe the phonological loop

A
  • Processes auditory information and order of information
  • Similar to rehearsal system in MSM
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54
Q

What’s the capacity of the phonological loop?

A

Has limited capacity - 2 sounds

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55
Q

Name the 2 parts that the phonological loop is divided into

A
  • Articulatory process
  • Phonological store
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56
Q

What does the articulatory process do?

A

‘inner voice’ - allows for maintenance rehearsal

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57
Q

What does the phonological store do?

A

‘inner ear’ - stores the words you hear

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58
Q

Describe the visuo-spatial sketchpad

A
  • Temporary store for visual and spatial items
  • Processes non-acoustic information
  • Helps people navigate around their surroundings
  • Info is rehearsed through mental pictures
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59
Q

Name the 2 parts that the visuo-spatial sketchpad is divided into

A

Inner scribe & visual cache

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60
Q

What does the visual cache do?

A

Stores visual material about colour or size

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61
Q

What does the inner scribe do?

A
  • Handles spatial awareness
  • Rehearses information from VC and sends it to CE
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62
Q

What does the episodic buffer do?

A

Facilitates communication between central executive and LTM

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63
Q

What is the episodic buffer’s capacity like?

A

Larger capacity than other stores

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64
Q

Who conducted the research into the WMM?

A

Baddeley and Hitch

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65
Q

Baddeley and Hitch: Research into WMM

Aim

A

To see if participants can use different parts of working memory at same time

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66
Q

Baddeley and Hitch: Research into WMM

Method

A
  • Perform 2 tasks at same time (dual task technique)
    • Digit span task
      • Repeat a list of numbers
    • Verbal reasoning task
      • Answer true or false to various questions
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67
Q

Baddeley and Hitch: Research into WMM

Results

A
  • As no. of digits ↑ = participants took longer to answer reasoning questions
    • But only fractions of second longer
  • & didn’t make any more errors in verbal reasoning tasks as no. of digits ↑
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68
Q

Baddeley and Hitch: Research into WMM

Conclusion

A
  • Verbal reasoning task used central executive
  • Digit span task used phonological loop
  • As participants able to do both tasks simultaneously = separate parts of working memory model
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69
Q

Name 1 postive evaluation point about the WMM

A

Support for visual cache and inner scribe

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70
Q

Name 1 negative evaluation point about the WMM

A

Little known about CE

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71
Q

WMM

Elaborate on the evaluation point: Support for visual cache and inner scribe

A
  • Found more interference occurs between 2 visual tasks compared to visual and spatial task
    • Suggests both separate components
      • VC = colour and form
      • IS = spatial relationships
  • PET scans support these findings
    • Brain activation in left hemisphere = visual tasks
    • Right hemisphere = spatial tasks
    • Supports idea VSS divided into VC and IS
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72
Q

WMM

Elaborate on the evaluation point: Little known about CE

A
  • Don’t really know how it works
  • & Evidence suggest CE may not be single element
    • Eslinger et al had patient who had cerebral tumour removed
    • Performed well on reasoning tasks = CE functional
    • Struggled with poor decision making skills = elements of CE damaged
    • Suggests other components in CE which WMM unable to explain ∵ over-simplified
  • Can’t explain how musical memory works
    • Participants able to listen to instrumental music without hindering their performance is other acoustic tasks
  • Not fully understood how link between working memory and long-term memory = not fully explained either
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73
Q

Name the 3 different stores in long-term memory

A
  • Episodic memory
  • Semantic memory
  • Procedural memory
74
Q

Who came up with the 3 different stores in long-term memory?

A

Tulving (1985)

75
Q

Describe episodic memory

A
  • Involves specific personal events & their context
    • Ability to recall events (episodes)
  • Have to make conscious effort to search this memory
  • Involves…
    • When it happened, time
    • Features that linked to that memory e.g. people, places, behaviours
  • Believed it helps distinguish between imagination and real life events
76
Q

What is the strength of episodic memories determined by?

A
  • Emotions present at time memory is being coded
  • Traumatic life events better recalled ∵ strong emotional attachment
77
Q

Describe semantic memory

A
  • Contains knowledge of the world
    • e.g. facts, understanding the meaning of words, concepts
  • Collection of memories that are constantly being added to
  • Memories are not ‘time stamped’
  • Gradual transition from episodic to semantic memory, knowledge loses its association to events
    • Semantic memories last longer than episodic
78
Q

What is the strength of semantic memories determined by?

A

Strength of processing that occurs when coding

79
Q

Describe procedural memory

A
  • Knowledge of actions and skills
  • Can recall memories without lots of conscious effort
    • e.g. driving a car
  • Hard to explain this memory verbally
  • Enables person to do 2 tasks simultaneously
  • Usually learnt through repetition and practice
80
Q

Name 2 postive evaluation points about types of LTM

A
  • Clive Wearing
  • Neuro-imaging Evidence
81
Q

Name 2 negative evaluations point about types of LTM

A
  • Might not be 3 types of memory
  • Gender Difference
82
Q

Types of Long-term Memory

Elaborate on the evalution point: Clive Wearing

A
  1. Had amnesia = episodic memory damaged
    1. ∵ difficulty recalling experiences and events from his past BUT semantic memory unaffected
    2. Understood meaning of words & could read music
    3. ∴ supports different types of long-term memory
  2. Weakness: study based on single individual
    1. ∴ can’t generalise finings to wider population as deflects in memory may be unique to this 1 person
83
Q

Types of Long-term Memory

Elaborate on the evalution point: Neuro-imaging Evidence

A
  • Tulving (1994) used brain scan studies to provide evidence for different types of LTM = stored in different parts of brain
  • Participants performed various tasks while being PET scanned
    • Episodic memories recalled from right pre-frontal cortex
    • Semantic memories recalled from left pre-frontal cortex
  • Shows physical reality to LTM = provides objective evidence
84
Q

Types of Long-term Memory

Elaborate on the evalution point: Might not be 3 types of memory

A
  • Cohen and Quire (1980) suggest episodic and semantic memories stored together in one LTM store = declarative memory (memories that can be consciously recalled)
  • Procedural memories = non-declarative
85
Q

Types of Long-term Memory

Elaborate on the evalution point: Gender Difference

A
  • Memory performance differs between males and females
  • Conducted study with 1000 participants in Sweden
  • Found females performed better than males on tasks requiring episodic memory
  • Could explain why females generally have higher verbal abilities
86
Q

What is forgetting?

A

Failure to retrieve memories

87
Q

Name 2 explanations for forgetting

A
  • Interference
  • Retrieval Faillure
    • Due to absence of cues
88
Q

Describe Interference

A
  • Forgetting occurs due to 2 memories competing, affected by past memories or possible future learning
  • More similar memories are = more interference = greater forgetting ∵ memories being confused in LTM
89
Q

Name the 2 types of interference

A
  • Proactive interference
  • Retroactive interference
90
Q

What is proactive interference?

A

When new memories are forgotten ∵ old memories override ability to process new info

91
Q

Give an example of proactive interference

A

e.g. old mobile number recalled when trying to recall new mobile phone number

92
Q

What is retroactive interference?

A

When old memories are forgotten due to new info interrupting access to old memories

93
Q

Give an example of retroactive interference

A

e.g. learn your new mobile number but are unable to remember your old one

94
Q

Name the researchers that found supporting evidence for interference as an explanations for forgetting

A

Baddeley and Hitch

95
Q

Baddeley and Hitch: interference as an explanations for forgetting

Aim

A

To find out if interference was better explanation for forgetting than passage of time

96
Q

Baddeley and Hitch: interference as an explanations for forgetting

Method

A
  • Rugby players asked to remember names of team they had played so far
  • ∵ most players had missed games, last team played = 2-3 weeks ago
97
Q

Baddeley and Hitch: interference as an explanations for forgetting

Findings

A
  • Accuracy of recall depended on number of games played
  • i.e. player’s recall of a match from 3 weeks ago was better if they had played no matches since then
98
Q

Name 2 postive evaluation points about interference as an explanations for forgetting

A
  • McDonald et al
  • Real World Applications
99
Q

Name a negative evaluation point about interference as an explanations for forgetting

A

Individual Differences

100
Q

Interference as an Explanation of Forgetting

Elaborate on the evalution point: McDonald et al

A
  1. Gave participants lists of adjectives to remember (List A)
  2. After learning List A, given List B to learn
  3. Recall poorest when List B was list of synonyms of List A (12% recall)
  4. Shows inference is strongest if info is similar
101
Q

Interference as an Explanation of Forgetting

Elaborate on the evalution point: Real World Applications

A
  • Found recall and recognition of advertiser’s message were reduced when exposed to adverts from competing brands within short time frame
  • Big problem since a lots of money spend on advertising
  • Can be improved by showing advert multiple times over 1 day than spacing advert out over a week
  • Reduces chance of interference, reduces dilution of adverts
102
Q

Interference as an Explanation of Forgetting

Elaborate on the evalution point: Individual Differences

A
  • Explains why people are less affected by proactive interference than others
  • Kane et al (2000) found participants with greater working memory span less susceptible to proactive interference
    • When testing recall using 3 word lists
    • Compared to participants with lower working memory spans
  • Shows interference theories can’t be generalised to everyone
103
Q

What is a cue?

A

Trigger that allows us to access and recall information

104
Q

Describe Retrieval Faillure

A
  • Suggests failing to access memory is due to insufficient cues to aid recall rather than it being unavailable
    • When information is placed in memory, associated cues are stored
    • If cues not available at time of recall = retrieval failure
    • Suggests info not lost, just can’t be accessed
105
Q

What principle did Tulving come up with?

A

Encoding-specificity principle

106
Q

What is the encoding-specificity principle?

A
  • Recollection is affected if context of recall is different to what it was when memory was coded
  • Suggests memory recall more effective when information which was present at time of encoding is available during retrieval
107
Q

Name 2 types of cue-dependent forgetting

A
  • Context Dependent Failure
  • State Dependent Failure
108
Q

Describe Context Dependent Failure

A
  • Occurs with external cues
  • When external environment is different at recall to time of encoding
109
Q

Give an example of context dependent failure

A

e.g. being in the same room where you learnt the answers to a test and then taking the test in another room

110
Q

Describe State Dependent Failure

A
  • Occurs with internal retrieval cues
  • When internal environment is different at recall to time of encoding
111
Q

Give an example of state dependent failure

A

e.g. trying to remember something when you were happy while you are feeling sad

112
Q

Retrieval Faillure as an Explanation of Forgetting

Name 3 +ve evalution point

A
  • Godden and Baddeley (divers)
  • Carter et al (anti-histamine)
  • Real World Applications
113
Q

Retrieval Faillure as an Explanation of Forgetting

Name 1 -ve evalution point

A

Lab studies and lack ecological valdity

114
Q

Retrieval Faillure as an Explanation of Forgetting

State Godden and Baddeley’s procedure

A
  • Investigating role of context-dependent failure
  • Divers given list of words to learn on land or underwater
  • Asked to recall information either underwater or land
115
Q

Retrieval Faillure as an Explanation of Forgetting

State Godden and Baddeley’s findings

A
  • Recall 40% lower when context of recall didn’t match learning/encoding
    • e.g. testing them when they learn underwater while on land = poorer retrieval than if tested while underwater
  • Recall better when divers had same environmental context at both learning and recall
116
Q

Retrieval Faillure as an Explanation of Forgetting

State Godden and Baddeley’s conclusion

A
  • External cues important in aiding recall of info
    • ONLY during free recall
  • When given recognition test & asked to say whether word was on the list
    • Context based failure effects not observed
  • Shows how cue dependency can’t explain all forms of forgetting
117
Q

Retrieval Faillure as an Explanation of Forgetting

Carter et al: procedure

A
  • Gave participants anti-histamine drug = made them feel slightly drowsy
  • Asked to learn a list of words when on drug or not on drug
  • Then asked to recall list of words when on drug or not on drug
118
Q

Retrieval Faillure as an Explanation of Forgetting

Carter et al: findings

A

Recall was lower when there was mismatch between internal states

119
Q

Retrieval Faillure as an Explanation of Forgetting

Carter et al: conclusion

A

Absence of internal cues = memory worse = retrieval failure

120
Q

Retrieval Faillure as an Explanation of Forgetting

Elaborate on the evaluation point: real world applications

A

Help police force in reconstructions of unsolved crimes

  • Use to aid conviction of Danielle Jones killer as reconstruction in 2001 prompted witnesses to recall her arguing with a man
  • Led to conviction of her uncle
  • Helps in cognitive interviews = help people recall information for witness testimonies
  • ∴ understanding how cues affect recall = develop ways to improve memory for benefit of society
121
Q

Retrieval Faillure as an Explanation of Forgetting

Elaborate on the evaluation point: Lab studies and lack ecological valdity

A
  • Not indicative of real world environments or situations of forgetting
  • Retrieval failure can’t be explained with cue dependent forgetting for activities like riding a bike
  • Suggests retrieval failure as theory for forgetting is oversimplified and incomplete
122
Q

What is eye witness testimony used for?

A

Used to give evidence in court to identify someone suspected of committing a crime

123
Q

Name the 3 stages eyewitness memory goes through

A
  1. Witness encodes into LTM details of event and persons involved
  2. Witness retains information for period of time
  3. Witness retrieves memory from storage
124
Q

Explain how this process can lead to inaccuracies in memory:

  1. Witness encodes into LTM details of event and persons involved
A

Encoding can be partial and distorted

125
Q

Explain how this process can lead to inaccuracies in memory:

  1. Witness retains information for period of time
A
  • Memories can be lost or modified during retention
  • & other actives between encoding and retrieval may interfere with memory
126
Q

Explain how this process can lead to inaccuracies in memory:

  1. Witness retrieves memory from storage
A

What occurs during reconstruction of memory (e.g. absence of appropriate cues) may affect its accuracy

127
Q

Name 2 factors that the accuracy of EWT depends on

A
  • Misleading Information
  • Anxiety
128
Q

Describe Misleading Information

A
  • Incorrect information that is given to witness, after event has taken place
  • Can influence memory and make it distorted and inaccurate
129
Q

Name the 2 forms of misleading information

A
  • Leading questions
  • Post-event discussion
130
Q

What are leading questions?

A

Way which question is phrased, suggests specific, desired answer

131
Q

Describe post-event discussion

A
  • Occurs when more than 1 witness to event
  • Witnesses discuss what they’ve seen with other witnesses/people
  • Influences accuracy of each witness’s recall
132
Q

State the name of researchers that looked into the effect of leading questions on recall

A

Loftus and Palmer (1974)

133
Q

Loftus and Palmer (1974): Leading questions

Aim

A

Investigate if leading questions distort accuracy of eyewitness’s immediate recall

134
Q

Loftus and Palmer (1974): Leading questions

Procedure

A
  1. 45 students shown traffic accident
  2. Asked to estimate how fast car was going in questionnaire
  3. Leading question: “About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?”
  4. Replaced hit with “smashed”, “collided”, “bumped”, “contacted”
135
Q

Loftus and Palmer (1974): Leading questions

Findings

A
  • Results showed verbs that implied stronger collision = greater average estimates of speeds
    • “Smashed”
      • Highest speed estimates (41 mph)
    • “Contacted”
      • Lowest speed estimates (30 mph)
136
Q

Loftus and Palmer (1974): Leading questions

Conclusion

A
  • Memory recall can be distorted by language used
  • Leading questions do affect memory recall
  • EWT are inaccurate and unreliable
137
Q

Loftus and Palmer (1974) - Experiment 2 : Leading questions

Procedure

A
  • Recreated experiment with another group with verbs “smashed”, “hit”
  • Had control group = no leading questions
  • Asked a week later if they saw any broken glass
    • No broken glass in film
138
Q

Loftus and Palmer (1974) - Experiment 2 : Leading questions

Findings

A
  • Found those exposed to “smashed” condition = believed car was travelling faster
    • More likely to report seeing broken glass
  • Control group = least likely
139
Q

Loftus and Palmer (1974) - Experiment 2 : Leading questions

Conclusion

A

Shows how misleading information post-event can change way information is stored or recalled

140
Q

Loftus and Palmer (1974): Leading questions

Postive evalution

A

Lab Study

  • Control for extraneous variables
  • See link between leading questions and recall
141
Q

Loftus and Palmer (1974): Leading questions

3x Negative evalution

A
  1. Lab studies = lack ecological validity
    • Results may lack external validity and wider generalisation
  2. Use of students = confounding variable
    1. Not representative of range of ages in normal population
    2. Sample lacks population validity
  3. Age may be confounding variable
    1. Younger children = more susceptible to influence to misleading questions than older
  • ∴ May lack internal validity
    • Measure on how leading questions affects on age group rather than wider population
142
Q

Name the researcher who looked into post-event discussion

A

Gabbert et al (2003)

143
Q

Gabbert et al (2003): Post-event discussion

Procedure

A
  1. Studied participants in pairs
    1. Each participants watched video of same crime but filmed from different POVs
    2. So each participant could see elements of crime other person could not
  2. Both participants discussed what they’d seen before completing test of recall
144
Q

Gabbert et al (2003): Post-event discussion

Findings

A
  • 71% participants mistakenly recalled aspects of event that they didn’t see in their video but picked up from discussion with other participant
  • Control group = no discussion = 0%
145
Q

Gabbert et al (2003): Post-event discussion

Conclusion

A
  • Witnesses often go along with each other to win social approval or to believe other witness to be right and they are wrong
  • Memory conformity = post-event discussion affects accuracy of recall
146
Q

Gabbert et al (2003): Post-event discussion

2x Negative Evaluations

A
  • Artificial setting
    • Lacks emotional effects of watching real life event
    • Can’t assume this fully representative of real life EWT memory
  • Don’t know whether discussion changed memory or not
    • Could be that participant was aware of their recall of event was different
    • But went along with other witness due to social pressure rather than it distorting their memory
147
Q

Misleading Information

Name a +ve evaluation point

A

Real world implications

148
Q

Misleading Information

Name 2 -ve evaluation point

A
  • Demand characteristics
  • Consequence of EWT
149
Q

Misleading Information

Elaborate on the evaluation point: Real world implications

A
  • Raises issues with real situation = innocent people being convicted/guilty people getting away with crime
  • ∴ important that convictions aren’t made based on EWT alone
150
Q

Misleading Information

Elaborate on the evaluation point: Demand characteristics

A
  • If participants asked question that they don’t know answer to = will guess
    • e.g. asked if they seen blue car, and if there was no blue car, may say yes ∵ this seems more helpful than saying arguing there wasn’t
  • Research may lack validity
  • Suggestion that misleading information affects EWT = inaccurate
151
Q

Misleading Information

Elaborate on the evaluation point: Consequence of EWT

A
  • Foster (1994) argues what you remember as eyewitness carries important consequences
  • In research, consequences don’t exist
  • ∴ can’t be determined that people respond in same way as they would in real crime
  • Limits research ∵ can’t say for sure that research represents real-life eyewitness testimony
152
Q

What is anxiety?

A

‘Unpleasant stay of emotional and physical arousal’

153
Q

What is the Yerkes-Dodson hypothesis?

A
  • Suggests moderate amounts of arousal can improve accuracy of recall
  • There’s an optimal point & If anxiety passes this = decline in recall
154
Q

Draw and label the anxiety and memory curve

A
155
Q

State the name of research that looks into how anxiety affects the accuracy of EWT

A

Loftus’ Weapon Effect

156
Q

Loftus’ Weapon Effect

Aim

A

To investigate the impact of anxiety upon accuracy of recall in EWT

157
Q

Loftus’ Weapon Effect

Procedure

A
  • Field experiment
  • Participants sat outside lab where they heard “genuine” exchanges between people inside lab
  • Condition 1
    • Hostile discussion, breaking glass, overturned furniture
    • Man emerged holding knife covered in blood
  • Condition 2
    • Less aggressive discussion
    • Man emerged holding pen
158
Q

Loftus’ Weapon Effect

Findings

A
  • Condition 1
    • 33%
  • Condition 2
    • More accurate in recognising man - 49%
159
Q

Loftus’ Weapon Effect

Evaluation: pro & con

A
  • Realistic nature
    • High ecological validity = relates to everyday behaviour
    • Findings representative of real life memory = anxiety affects recall negatively
  • Difficult to control variables
    • E.g. individual differences
    • ∴ can’t assume findings due to anxiety and no other factors
160
Q

Yuille & Cutshalls: Anxiety affecting EWT’s accuracy

Procedure

A
  1. Real-life shooting in gun shop
  2. 13 witness interviewed 4-5 months after incident took place
  3. Compared to police interviews conducted at time of shooting
  4. Accuracy determined by no. of details recorded in each account
  5. Witness asked to rate how stressed they felt using 7-point scale
161
Q

Yuille & Cutshalls: Anxiety affecting EWT’s accuracy

Findings

A
  • Witnesses very accurate in their accounts
    • Little change in amount of details after 5 months
  • Those who reported highest levels of stress = most accurate
162
Q

Yuille & Cutshalls: Anxiety affecting EWT’s accuracy

Conclusion

A

High levels of anxiety = don’t cause drop in recall

163
Q

Yuille & Cutshalls: Anxiety affecting EWT’s accuracy

Evaluation: 1 pro & 2 cons

A
  • High ecological validity
    • Findings of high anxiety are representative of everyday life
  • Variables weren’t controlled
    • Impossible to eliminate other factors that could have affected results
    • E.g. distance between incident and witness affected results rather than anxiety
  • Can’t replicate
    • Can’t assess reliability of findings
    • Can’t suggest anxiety positively affects recall leading accurate eyewitness testimony can’t be verified
164
Q

Anxiety Affecting EWT’s Accuracy

Name a postive evaluation point

A

Peters (1988)

165
Q

Anxiety Affecting EWT’s Accuracy

Name 2 negative evaluation point

A
  • Yuille & Cutshalls
  • Over simplistic explanation
166
Q

Anxiety Affecting EWT’s Accuracy

Elaborate on the evaluation point: Peters (1988)

A
  • Studied people attending clinic for injections
  • Met nurse and researcher for equal periods of time
  • 1 week later, asked to identify nurse and researcher from set of photos
  • Identifications of researcher was easier than nurse = suggests heightened anxiety levels caused by injection = lower memory accuracy
167
Q

Anxiety Affecting EWT’s Accuracy

Elaborate on the evaluation point: Over simplistic explanation

A
  • Deffenbacher (2004) EWT Performance gradually increases up to extremely high levels of anxiety & then at certain point = high drop in performance
    • (unlike in Yerkes-Dodson curve where there is a steady decline)
  • Meta-analysis of over 60 studies supported this
168
Q

What is the cognitive interview?

A

Method used by police to aid eyewitnesses in recalling information more accurately

169
Q

Name the 4 stages of the cognitive interview

A
  1. Report everything
  2. Mental reinstatement of context
  3. Change of narrative order
  4. Change of perspective
170
Q

Cognitive Interview

Describe the stage: 1. Report everything

A
  • Recall every detail of event, even if they’re irrelevant
  • Trivial details could be important or trigger other important memories
171
Q

Cognitive Interview

Describe the stage: 2. Mental reinstatement of context

A
  • Encouraged to return to crime scene in their mind & imagine environment and emotions at time
  • These cues may trigger memories (linked to context-dependent forgetting)
172
Q

Cognitive Interview

Describe the stage: 3. Change of narrative order

A
  • Recalled in different chronological orders
  • Prevent people reporting their expectations of how event must have appeared rather than actual events
173
Q

Cognitive Interview

Describe the stage: 4. Change of perspective

A
  • Recall incident from other people’s perspectives
  • To disrupt effect of expectations and schemas on recall
174
Q

Name 4 features of the enhanced cognitive interview

A
  1. Distractions should be minimised
  2. Witness should be encouraged to speak slowly
  3. Pauses between 1 question and next should be tailored to suit individual
  4. Witness anxiety should be reduced
175
Q

Cognitive Interview

Name 2 pros

A
  • Real world applications
  • Individual differences
176
Q

Cognitive Interview

Name 2 cons

A
  • Time consuming
  • Can’t be used on children under age of 8
177
Q

Cognitive Interview

Elaborate on the evaluation point: Real world applications

A
  • Stein and Memon tested effectiveness of cognitive interview in Brazil (developing country)
  • Participants watched video of abduction
  • Compared to standard police interviewing methods, CI increased amount of correct info obtained from witnesses
  • Suggest CI may become new approach to interviewing witnesses in Brazil/developing countries = reduces injustice
178
Q

Cognitive Interview

Elaborate on the evaluation point: Individual differences

A
  • Useful when interviewing older witnesses
  • Negative stereotypes about older adults’ memory = make witnesses overly cautious about reporting info
  • ∵ CI reports all details = overcomes this
  • Found CI produced better recall than standard interview, but improvement was greater in older adults than younger adults
  • Useful in enhancing witness recall in older people
179
Q

Cognitive Interview

Elaborate on the evaluation point: Time consuming

A
  • Police officers suggest technique requires more time than often available
  • Prefer to use deliberate strategies aimed to limit eyewitness’s report to minimum amount of info the officer needs
180
Q

Cognitive Interview

Elaborate on the evaluation point: Can’t be used on children under age of 8

A
  • Found younger children recalled facts with less accuracy in CI than other interview techniques
  • However, variations of CI developed to enhance children’s recall
  • Showed children a video & interviewed them about it with either standard interview or cognitive interview designed for children
  • CI superior to SI = effective with different groups of witnesses
181
Q

Describe how the capacity of STM can be increased

A

By chunking items together to reduce the no. of separate items overall

182
Q

Describe how the duration of STM can be increased

A

By verbal rehearsal i.e. info can maintained in the rehearsal loop

A level Psychology (14 decks)

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