AAMC FL4 B/B

Question 1

cytochromes

Answer 1

redox-active proteins containing a heme, with a central Fe atom at its core, as a cofactor

the job of the cytochrome is to make drugs more polar/hydrophilic

Question 2

catabolism involves the release of energy through ________ (reduction/oxidation) of the molecule

Answer 2

catabolism involves the release of energy through oxidation of the molecule

ex. beta oxidation for fatty acid metabolism, glycolysis and TCA cycle for glucose metabolism

Question 3

anabolism involves the creation of ______ (high/low) energy molecules by _______ (reducing/oxidizing) them

Answer 3

anabolism involves the creation of high energy molecules by reducing them

ex. fatty acid synthesis and gluconeogenesis, both use energy by oxidizing high-energy molecules (ATP, NADPH)

Question 4

carboxylase

Answer 4

adda carboxyl group to a molecule

Question 5

where does phosphorylation occur? which amino acids can be phosphorylated?

Answer 5

phosphate groups can be added onto molecules with OH groups, by removal of the H (?)

on amino acids serine, threonine, and sometimes tyrosine !

Question 6

Answer 6

Question 7

isoelectric focusing

Answer 7

allows separation of the molecules based on their isoelectric point

recall: isoelectric point = the pH where the net charge is 0

Question 8

ion exchange chromatography

Answer 8

separation of the molecules based on their charge

Question 9

Gel filtration chromatography

Answer 9

Gel filtration chromatography separates protein only on the basis of their size

Question 10

Native PAGE

Answer 10

Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE)

separate molecules based on their electrophoretic mobility, relying on length, conformation, and charge.

a technique that uses non-denatured gels for the separation of proteins

Question 11

Henry’s Law

Answer 11

the concentration of gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the solubility and partial pressure of that gas

Question 12

isoelectric point

Answer 12

he pH of a solution at which the net charge of a protein becomes zero

Question 13

Na+/K+ ATPase

Answer 13

pumps 3 Na out

pumps 2 K in

• (nah get out, k come in)*
• (out = 3 letters, in = 2 letters)*

Question 14

phosphate group charge

Answer 14

-2

Question 15

ester

Answer 15

Question 16

ester linkage

Answer 16

Question 17

phosphotransferase

Answer 17

catalyze phosphorylation reactions (transfer of a phosphate group)

Question 18

where does fatty acid synthesis occur

Answer 18

cytoplasm

Question 19

where does beta oxidation occur

Answer 19

mitochondria

Question 20

fatty acid synthesis

Answer 20

1-Citrate leaves mitochondrial matrix, crosses double membrane layers, to cytosol

2-Citrate converted to acetyl CoA + OAA via enzyme citrate lyase

3-Acetyl CoA (2C) gets converted to malonyl CoA (3C) via enzyme ACC (acetyl CoA carboxylase) – rate limiting step

4-Malonyl CoA gets lengthened 2 C at a time via enzyme fatty acid synthase

5-Regulation: high insulin triggers fatty acid synthesis

6-Fatty acid + glycerol = triglycerides (stored in adipocyte cells)

Question 21

fatty acid synthesis NET formula

Answer 21

Question 22

transcription factor

Answer 22

has a DNA-binding domain that allows it to bind to regulatory nucleic acid sequences in a gene to alter transcription

Question 23

giantism

Answer 23

due to excessive growth hormone (grows bones and muscles)

Question 24

growth hormone

Answer 24

grows muscles and bones (not fat cells)

Question 25

insulin levels raise when:

Answer 25

blood glucose levels are high pull glucose from the blood into the cells

Question 26

osmolarity in ileum after meal will _______ (increase/decrease)

Answer 26

**increase** recall: high osmolarity = high solute concentration

Question 27

2 components when engineering a vaccine

Answer 27

immunogenicity and toxicity we want the vaccine to be part of the disease that will cause an immune response but NOT be toxic / cause a negative reaction ex. the covid spikes

Question 28

large vs small ribosomal subunit (eukaryotes)

Answer 28

Question 29

large vs small ribosomal subunit (prokaryotes)

Answer 29

Question 30

microRNA

Answer 30

a small single-stranded non-coding RNA molecule that functions in **RNA silencing** and post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression

Question 31

RT-PCR

Answer 31

combines reverse transcription of RNA into DNA and amplification of specific DNA targets using polymerase chain reaction It is primarily used to measure the amount of a specific RNA.

Question 32

Quantitative PCR

Answer 32

“polymerase chain reaction” a technique that measures the levels of DNA in a sample

Question 33

western, northern, southern blot

Answer 33

**SNOW DROP** southern → DNA northern → RNA western → protein

Question 34

heterochromatin vs euchromatin

Answer 34

**heterochromatin:** a tightly packed form of DNA or condensed DNA **euchromatin:** the area of the chromosome which is rich in gene concentration and actively participates in the transcription process

Question 35

blood pressure

Answer 35

systolic / diastolic (pressure in arteries during contraction) / (pressure in arteries during relaxation)

Question 36

negative control

Answer 36

a group in an experiment that does not receive any type of treatment and, therefore, should not show any change during the experiment

Question 37

transfection

Answer 37

a procedure that introduces foreign nucleic acids into cells to produce genetically modified cells

Question 38

skeletal muscle differentiation

Answer 38

a highly controlled, multistep process, during which single muscle cells initially freely divide and then align and fuse to form multinucleated myotubes mesoderm →

Question 39

3 primary germ layers

Answer 39

Question 40

early central nervous system

Answer 40

Question 41

myoblast

Answer 41

an undifferentiated cell capable of giving rise to muscle cells

Question 42

bacterial growth phases

Answer 42

(exponential phase is also called the “log phase”)

Question 43

how is excess water normally secrete (besides urine)

Answer 43

through the skin and lungs

Question 44

where is water typically absorbed in the digestive system

Answer 44

the LARGE intestine (large)

Question 45

humans carry approx. how much blood volume?

Answer 45

5 liters

Question 46

B cells vs T cells

Answer 46

both are white blood cell lymphocytes B cells → recognizes antigens and create antibodies T cells → actually wipe out the infected cells

Question 47

B cells

Answer 47

white blood cells (lymphocytes) with receptors that bind to antigens on the surface of pathogens or foreign substances the antigen is engulfed into the B-cell (via receptor mediated endocytosis) the B-cell breaks down the antigen and presents the pieces on its surface helper T cells cause the B-cell to replicate itself and turn into plasma cells which produce antibodies

Question 48

helper T cells

Answer 48

activate B cells bind to major histocompatibility (MHC) II on B cells and causes release of lymphokines

Question 49

cytotoxic T cell

Answer 49

all cells have MHC I on their membrane the infected cells (now making viral proteins from viral DNA) present these viral proteins on its surface via the MHC I the cytotoxic T cells recognize the presented protein as bad and initiate apoptosis

Question 50

memory T cells

Answer 50

can replicate fast and initiate their response rapidly if they have encountered the antigen before

Question 51

microglia

Answer 51

macrophages of the CNS; the first and main form of active immune defense in the CNS they _phagocytize_ many products in the **brain**

Question 52

are T and B cells normally present in the CNS/brain?

Answer 52

NO microglia are the immune cells of the brain and will recruit T and B cells if necessary

Question 53

layers around the brain

Answer 53

Question 54

desmosomes

Answer 54

intercellular junctions that provide strong _adhesion between cells_ “anchoring" junctions found in tissues subject to stress (ex. heart muscle and skin)

Question 55

tight junctions

Answer 55

impermeable junctions prevent molecules from passing through the intercellular space

Question 56

gap junctions

Answer 56

allow for intercellular communication allow ions and small molecules to pass directly to an adjacent cell ex. found in electrical excitable cells like the heart

Question 57

intercalated discs

Answer 57

specialized intercellular junctions between cardiac muscle cells that provide direct electrical coupling among cells