Aggression Flashcards
1
Q
What is the limbic system ?
A
subcortical structures in the brain , including the hypothalamus and amygdala, thought to be closely involved in regulating, emotional behaviour ,including aggression.
2
Q
what is serotonin ?
A
a neurotransmitter with widespread inhibitory effects throughout the brain . It has a key role in aggressive behaviour .
3
Q
what is testosterone
A
a hormone from the androgen group that is produced mainly in the male testes (and in smaller amounts in the female ovaries ). Associated with aggresiveness.
4
Q
who did the study on the limbic sytem?
A
James Papez and Paul Maclean linked the limbic system to emotional behaviours including aggression.
-They defined the limbic system as the HY POTHALAMUS, AMYGDALAANDPARTSOFTHEHIPPOCAMPUSandother strucuresseepage .
5
Q
conclusion about the limbic system (think amygdala)
A
Reactivity of the amygdala in humans and in other mammals is an important predictor of aggressive behaviour (the more responsive the amygdala is the more aggressive a person is.
-So the amygdala has a key role in how mammals assess and respond to environmental threats .
6
Q
Who studied the activity of the amygdala ?
A
Katarina Gospic , where some participants were subjected to mild provocation. When participants ,, reacted aggressively tot he fMRI scans showed by heightened response by the amygdala ,
-A BENZODIAZEPINE DRUG ( which reduced arousal of the autonomic nervous system )taken before the provocation led to two effects; it decreased the activity of the amygdala, and halved the number of rejections (reduced aggression ) illustrating again , the role of the amygdala .
7
Q
Orbitofrontal cortex and serotonin part one;
A
serotonin is a neurotransmitter that has widespread inhibitory effects in the brain ,i.e. , it slows down and calms neuronal activity.
-Normal levels of serotonin , in the orbitofrontal cortex, are linked with reducing , firing of neurons which is associated with greater behavioural self control .
8
Q
what does decreased serotonin do and then compare the levels .
A
decreased serotonin, deficiency disrupts this mechanism, reducing self control and leading to an increase in impulsive behaviour , including aggression.
- Matti Virkunnen compared levels of a serotonin breakdown product (a metabolite called HIAA) in the cerebrospinal fluid of violent and impulsive and non violent non impulsive of offenders . This levels were significantly lower in the impulsive offenders.
9
Q
What role does testosterone play in the body .
A
The male sex hormone testosterone is an androgen responsible for the development of masculine features . It is thought to be linked to aggressive behaviour for several reasons.
-Many people have observed that men are generally more aggressive than women . Men become aggressive towards other men at the same time of development , after 20 years at the same time of development.
-Testosterone has a role in regulating social behaviour via its influence on certain areas of the brain implicated in aggression .
10
Q
studies done for testosterone - castration studies
A
Giammanco, castration studies of animals show that removing the testes (the source of testosterone ) reduces aggression in males of many species . Giving injections ,more testosterone to the same animals restores aggressive behaviour Giammanco.
11
Q
humans prison studies for aggression
A
some evidence for a similar association in humans comes from studies of prison populations , e.g , violent offenders .
Dolan found a positive correlation , between testosterone levels and aggressive behaviours example 60 offenders in uk maximum security hospitals.
-these men has personality disorders and histories of impulsive violent behaviour.
12
Q
progesterone levels linked to aggression
A
there is some evidence that progesterone (a female ovarian hormone ) plays an important role in aggression in women .
-Levels of progesterone vary during the ovulation cycle and are the lowest just after mensuration l.
-Anna Ziomekiwix a found a negative correlation between progesterone levels and self reported aggression . Suggesting how low levels of progesterone are linked to increased aggression in women.
13
Q
EVALUATION
A
Other brain structures
-One limitation of the limbic explanation , is more research showing that non - limbic brain structures are also involved in aggression .
-Limbic structures (e.g the amygdala , function together with the orbitofrontal cortex , which is not part of the limbic system . The OFC , is involved in impulse regulation and inhibition of aggressive behaviour .
-According to Emil Cuccaro , OFC , activity is reduced in those psychiatric disorders that feature aggression . This reduced activity disrupts the OFC;s impulse - controlled function , which in turn , causes aggressive behaviour .
-This shows that the neural regulation of aggression is more complex than theories focusing on the amygdala suggests .
14
Q
Evaluation - drugs and serotonin
A
one strength of the serotonin explanation is research into the effects of drugs . Drugs that increase serotonin have been found to also reduce levels of aggressive behaviour Mitchell Berman , gave participants either a placebo or a dose of paroxetine .
-Then participants then took part in a lab - based game that invoked giving and receiving electric shocks in response to provocation . The paroxetine group consistently give fewer and less intense shocks than the placebo group . This is evidence of a casual link between serotonin , function and aggression .
15
Q
EVALUATION EXTRA - direct or indirect
A
There is an argument that neural factors are directly linked with aggression , .
-This is evidence to support this view in Gospic , study of the amygdala reactivity and benzodiazepines .
-However , the role of neural factors may be indirect . For example . Thomas Denson , link between serotonin , and aggression . But this is an indirect link because other factors (Social psychological ) may influence it . ,
16
Q
EVALUATION - animal research 0 strength of hormonal explanations
A
Support from research with non - human animals . Marco Giammanco review of studies to confirms the role of testosterone levels . For example in male Rhesus macaque monkeys there is an increase in both testosterone and levels of aggressive behaviour during the mating seasons .
-In rats , castration of males reduces testosterone and also mouse-killing behaviour , injecting female rats with testosterone increases mouse-killing . These findings show the role of testosterone in a range of animal species .
17
Q
Evaluation - dual hormone hypothesis
A
one limitation , is mixed evidence of the link between testosterone and aggression in humans , Justin Carre and Prankal Mehta developed a dual hormone hypothesis to explain why .
-They claim , that high levels of testosterone lead to aggressive behaviour but only when levels of cortisol are low .
-When cortisol is high , testosterone influence on aggression is blocked . The hormone cortisol plays a central role in the body’s response in
18
Q
Evaluation Extra
A
-Hormonal mechanisms, invovled in AGGRESSION IN HUMANS AND OTHER MAMMALS ARe likely to be very similar . In fact , the research on this human spread shows, that a lot of what we known, about the role of hormones comes from non-human studies .
-However aggressive behaviour in humans is more complex than in other mammals . For example , Carre and MEHTA’S findings concenrning crisol applied onlyto human aggreiosn .
-Also cogntiotive factors plahya greater role in human aggression , especially in cold-blooded poractive aggession .
19
Q
genetic factor
A
-genes consist of DNA strands DNA produces insturctions for egernal phsycial features , of an organisms
(such as eye colour height ) , and also spepcific , phsycial features (such as neurotransmitter level and size of brain strudutres These may impact on psychological features such as intelligence and mental disorder ). Genes are transmited , from parent to offspirng i.e inherited .
20
Q
MAOA genes
A
The genes responsiblle for the activity of the enzyme monamine oxidase in the brian . LOw activity variant of the gene is closely associated with aggresive eaviour .
21
Q
Twin studies
A
-Several twin studies , have suggested , that heritability (i.e genetic factors ) , accounts for abount 50% , of the variance in aggresive , behaviour . For exmple , Emil , Coccaro studied , men who were either monozygotic , or digozygotic twins .
-Becausse , MZ twins , share 100% , of their genes but DZ tins , only share 50% in average we would expect to find greater similarities in aggressive behaviour between MZ twins , if aggression is mostly influenced by genetic factors .
22
Q
The MAOA GENE
A
The MAOA , gene controls the production of an enzyme , called monoamine oxidiase A , (MAO-A note the gene is MAOA and the enzyme MAO-A) . MAO-A , regilates , the neurotransmitter serotoonin (a monamine ) . As we saw on hte previosu spread , serotonin is thought to play an important role in impulsive aggression .
23
Q
MAO gene - genes contrlling
A
genes come in different variants (hgh and low in the case of the MAOA gene ) . The low-activity vriant (MAOA-L) , result in low acitivty og th MAOA-A enzyme (MAO-A dfeicniecy ) , It is the variant m (mAIA-L results in low aciticty of the MAOA enzyme MAOA deficencey . It is the MAOA- L variant , that has been linked to high levles of aggressive behaviour .
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Q
MOA GENE - warrior gene
A
MAIA gene has beeen nicknamed warrior genes because of research by Rod Lea and Geoff chamber (2007) which showed tht the MAOA-L variant was possessed by 56 % , of new zealand Maori men (compared with 34 % of caucasians ) , historically the maori , people have had a reputation for being ferocious , wwarriors hence hte nickname .
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the link between MAOA-L aggression was further , cemented by Han Brunner (1933)
-Linkk between , , they studied 28 men , from a large dutch family , who were repatedly inolved , ion impulsively aggressive violent , criminal behaviours such as rape attempted murder and physical assault . These men had anormally low levels , of the enzyme MAOA- A as well as he MAOA-L gene variant (which is sometimes reerred to as the BRUNNER SYNDROME ) .
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Gene - environment Gxe) INTERACTIONS
Genes are crucial infleunces on aggressiv bhaviour but they do not functions , in isolation . IT appers to be hte case that MAOA-; genes acticity , is only related to adult aggressionwhencombined with early trauamtic life experiences .
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(GxE) INTERACTIONS For example
Giovanni Frzazzeto found an associaiton between higher le els of antisocials < aggression < and the MAOA_L gene varaint in men < as expected But this
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EVALUATION 0 genetic factors in aggression
One strength is support for the role of the MAOA gene n aggresion .
-Research on the facing page shows that the low activity varain of the MAOA (MAOA-L gene is associated with greater aggression .
-Vanessa Mertins et al (2011) found that the converse is also true .
-Men with low activity and high activity variants of the MAOA gene took part in a money distributing game .
-Men with the higher-activity varaint (MAOA-H) were more co-opertive and amde fewer aggression moves than the low activity participants .
--This finding supports the relationship between the MAOA gene activity and aggresison .
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EVALUATION - COUNTERPOINT
However , the study by Mertins et al also showed tht non-genetic factors are crucial . THey found that even participants with low - activity MAOA variant (MAOA-L) behaved co-operatively rather than aggresively when they were made ware that others in the sutdy were behaving co-operatively . (gIVING money away ) .
-KNOWLEDGE OF SOCIAL NORMS , actually partly determined how aggresive or coopertive the MAOA-L participants were . Therrefore genes are infleucned by environental factors (knowing about other's behaviours ) that are at least as important in aggression .
30
EVALUATION - for genetic factors in aggression - it being a complex link (1)
-One limitation of the MAOA serotonin agression links is that the precise mechanism is unclear . On the previous spread , research linked aggression with low levels of serotonin (Virkkunen 1994) , . But the MOAA-L genes causes low activity of the MAO-A enzyme which in turn should lead to higher serotonin because the low-activity enzyme does not deactivate serotonin (its normal funciton ) , leaving more serotonin for synaptic transmission .
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evaluation - for gentic factors in aggression it beign a complex link (2)
In people witht he MAOA-L variant , it ma be more accurate to say that thier serotonin levels are disrupted rather than they are lower or highher than normal . This shows that the relationship between the MAOA gene serotonin and aggression ois not yet fully understood .
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evaluaiton - genetic facotrs 0 problems with twin studies
Another limitaiton of the genetic expalantion is that twin studies ma lack validity .
in every pair of twins , both indiviudals share the same environment as each other (because each pair is raised together ) .
-However , DZ , twin may not share thier enviornment , to the sme extent tha MZ twins share theirs .
-We assume they do and this is called the equal enviornemnts assumptio n .
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evaluaiton - genetic facotrs 0 problems with twin studies (2)
The assumption hwoever , may also be wrong because one aspect of the environment , is the way twins are treated by others . MZ twins are treated very similarly especially by parents (rpaising them equally for being aggressive ).
-DZS , are treated in less similar ways , thois means that concordancw e rates are inflated and geentic infleucnes on aggresion may not be as great as twin sudies suggest .
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Evaluation extra - nature and nurtrue
several lines of evdienc eon this psread point ot geenes as direct causes of aggression . THese incldue twin and adoption stuies , research on the MAOA gene and animal studies .
-HOwever , there is also evidence that environmental fctors are improtant . Criticisms of twin studies , support this view , Earlyc hildhood trauma also plays a role . At the very leas environmental factors affect whether a gene is expressed or not .
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What are ethological explanations
An explanation that seeks to understand the innate behavior of animals (including humans ) by studying , them in their natural environments .
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Innate releasing mechanism (IRM)
A biological structure or process (e.g in the brain ) which is activated by an external stimulus that in turn triggers a fixed action pattern .
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Fixed action pattern
a sequence of sterstereotypedotyped preprogrammed behaviours triggered by an innate releasing mechanism.
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adaptive functions of aggression (1)
the ethological explanations suggests that the main function of aggression is adapive . Aggression is beneficial to survival becuase a defeated animal israrely killed , but rather is orced to establish territory elsewhere . This means hat memebers of a species spread out over a wider area and hve to discover resouces in a diferent place , which reduces compeition pressure and he possibility of starvaiton .
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another adaptive funcitono f agression (2)
qanother adaptie fucntion of aggression is to esablish dominance hierachies . Male chimpanzees use aggression to climb their troop;s social hierchy domiannce give them special status (e.g mating rights over females ) . This happens in humans too . Gregroy Pettit studies groups of uyoung children and observed whow aggresion played an importnat role int he development of dominance hierachies . This would be adapive (and thus naturally sleected ) because dominanc eover other thing bring benefits cuch as access to resource (food and mates )
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ehological expplanations of aggressio - ritualisitic aggression
a ritual is a series of behaviours carried out in a set order . Konrad Lorenz (1966) observed hat fihgths between animals of the same species porduced little actual physical damage . Most ggrssive encounters consisted of a prolonged period of ritualiitc signalling (e.g displaying clwas and teeth ,f acial expressions of threat ) .
-Furthermore , Lorenz pointed out that intra-species aggressive confrontations end withritual appeaappeasementseent displays . These indicate acceptance of defet and inhibit urther aggressive behaviour in the expose its neck to the victor , a submissive appeasement gesture making itself vulnerable to a single bite to its jugular vein . This is adptiv , because if every aggressive encounter ended with th edeath of one of the combatants that could threaten the exisence of the species . .
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ritualistic aggresion (2)
-Furthermore , Lorenz pointed out that intra-species aggressive confrontations end withritual appeaappeasementseent displays . These indicate acceptance of defet and inhibit urther aggressive behaviour in the expose its neck to the victor , a submissive appeasement gesture making itself vulnerable to a single bite to its jugular vein . This is adptiv , because if every aggressive encounter ended with th edeath of one of the combatants that could threaten the exisence of the species . .
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Innate releasing mechanisms and fixed action pattenrs
an innae releasing mechansims is an ibuilt phsyiological process or strucutre for instance a network of neurons (a ciruit ) in the brain . An envioronemntal stimulus (such as certain facial expression ) triggers the IRM , which then 'releases' a specific sequence of beaviours This behavioural sequence is called a fixed action pattern . AAccordign to Stephen Lea (1984) ,
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FAOS have six main features ;:
-stereotyped or relatively unchancging sequences of behaviours .
-universal because the same behviour is found in every idnvidual of a species .
-unaffectd yb elarning ,t he same for every ivnidvidual regardless of experience .
-ballisitic once the behaviour is triggerd it follows an inevitbl course and cannot be altered before it is compelted .
-single purpose the behviour onl occurs in a specific situation and not in any other .
-a resposne to an identfiable specific isgn stimulus ( or fi it invovles communicaiton beeen memebrs of he same species it is knowna s a relaser )
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tinenebrrgen's research PROCEDURE
Male stickelbacks are hgihgly territroial during the spring mating season , when they are also develop a red spot on their underbelly . Idf another male enters thier sterritory a sequence of highly -sterotyped d aggressive behaviours is intiiaed (FAP) .
-THe sign stimulus (the particual feature of a stimulus ) that trigers the innate releasing mechanism is the sight of the red spot , NIKO tinbergen (1951_) presened sticklebcks with a series of wooden models of different hspes .
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Tinbergen's research - FINDINGS
Regardless of shape , if the mdoel had a red spot the male stickleback would aggressively display and even atttack it . BUt if there was no red spot , there was no aggression ,m even if the mdoel looked realistically like a stickleback . Tinbergen also found that these aggressice FAPS were unchanging from one encounter to another . Once triggered , the FAP , always ran its course to compeltion without any further stimulus .
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EVALUAITON - etholoigcial explanations - RESEARCH SUPPORT
One strength is support from the reserch related to genetics and evolution . On the previous spred , we considered evidence that support a geentic basis for aggression . For example ,, Han Brunner showed tht one egene MAOA -L gene , is closely associated with aggressive behaviour in humans .
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EVALUATION 0 RESEARCH SUPPORT (2)
Twin and adoption studies alsalsoso showed tht there is a significant genetic component to aggression in huamns . Furthermore , ont he next spread , we look at the case for seeing aggression as an adaptive behaviour (IWLSON AND DALY 1996) , and therefore , genetically-based. THese , lines of research point towards an innate basis to aggressive behavours . This suggests the ethologicl a paggression porch is correct in claiming that aggresion is genetically determined heritable and adaptive .
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evaluation research support - COUNTERPOINT
However , aggressive behaviours differs from one culture to another , sometimes even within the same country . Richard Nisbet (1993) , found that one type of homicide (the result of reactive aggression ) , was common amongst white men in the southern United states , than in the northern satates .
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evaluation resrach support counterpoint (2)
reactive aggression is a response to hreats from someone else . Nisbett condluconcludedded tha the difference ws caused b y a culutur e fo honour , in the southern us . This is less prevalent int he north , whcih is hwy rective ggression homicide rtes are lower there . SO this ind of aggresive beahviour comes from a learned social norm rather than being instiictive . Therefore culutculturere can overrinnateid einnate predispositions which is hard for ethological theory to explain .
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ritualisitc aggression - ethological explanation one limitiation is that agression agaisnt memebers of the same species is not just ritualisitc . Jane Goodall (010)
Jane Goodall (2010) m ibserved four year war , during which male chimps rom one community killed all the members of another group . THe did this in a systematic wy . Ons ome occasions ,a vicitm would be held down by rival chcimps while others hit it inn an atack lasing many minutes .
-The violence , continued ,, even though the victims offered appeasement signlas .
-These signals did not inhibit the aggrssive behviours of the atackers as predicted by the ethological explanation . This chllenges the ethological view tht same - species aggression has evovled into a self-limiting and relatiely harmless ritual .
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EVAL
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EVALAUTION - FAPS re onot ficed
another limitiaiton , is tht Lorenz's origianl view of FAPS is outdaed . He saw FAps as innate and ucnahging , But the psychologists Morton Hunt (1973) , has pointed out that FAPs are actually geatly infleunced by enviornmental factors and learning expereinces .
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EVALUATION 0 FAPS ARE NOTO IFXED (2)
For isntance , an aggresisve AP , is typically made up of several behaviours in a series . tHE DURATION OF EACH BEHAIOUR varies from oone indiicdual to another and even in the same individual fromo ne encounter to another . Because they are modifiable y expiereince , man ethologists now prefer the term modal behaviour pattern to reflec tthis . THEREOFRE , pattern , of aggressive are mcuh more flexible than lorenxx thought especially in huamns .
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evalaution extra - born to be aggresssive
ethologists argue that aggression is an innate insiitct . An important , implicaiton og this view , is that huumans will inevitably be agressive and fight each otheor . Lonrez argued that this inevitbility is demonstrated by FAPS .
-However ,, othe pproaches , in psychology , (the cognitivie approch ) suggests that aggression is not inevtibale because it is more under rational control thn insticintive because it is more udner rational control thn isntiinctive it is also less innate and more affectd by learning experiences than ethologists accep t.
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evolutionary explanaation
an account of the changes in species over millions of years based on the idea of antrual selection - an behaviour that enhances survivial nd ultimtley successful reproduction is perpetuated .
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meaning of evolutionary explanations of human aggression - evolutionary explanation of sexual jealousy
sexual jealousy is a major motivator of aggressive behaviour in males which can be given an evolutionay expalantions .
-Jealousy occurs because men , unlike women , can never be totally sure about whether or not they are thier child;s parent .
-This paternity uncertainity is a result of the very real threat fofr the male of cuckoldry ( having to raise offspring that is not his own ).
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evolutionayr explanaitons of jealousy (2)
any investement in offspring who do not share the male's genes is a wste of his resources . It contributes to survival of a rival's genes and leces the 'father; with fewer resources to invest in his own future offsprring .
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evolutionary explantion of sexual jealousy - men in our evolutoanry past
men in our evolutionay pst WHO COULD AVOID CUCKOLDRY WERE M ORE REPORODUCITVELY SUCCESSFUL .
-sO PSYCHOLOGICAL MECHANISMS HVE EVOVLED TO INCREASE ANTI-CUCOLDYRY behvaiour in females . This drives the often aggreive stateies men employ to retain their partners and to prevent htem from straying . These strategie were adaptive in our evolutionary hisotry .
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mate retention strategies (1) - MARGO wilson and martin Daly (1996) idenoitfy several mate retention strategies which invovle aggression and even physical violence including ;
DIRECT GUARDING , which involves male vigilance over a partner's behaviour , for example checking who they have been seeing , coming home early keeping tabs on wheerebaouts etx
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mate retention strategies part two
NEGATIVE INDUCEMENTS 0 such as issuing threats of dire consequences for infidelity
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phsyical violence against partner (1)
Margo Wilson and Martin Daly (1996) asked women to report mate retention strategies in thier partners . This ws measured in terms of the extent to which they agreed with statements like he inists on knowing who you are with and where you are at all times .
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physical violence against partner (2)
women who did agree with such stataements were twice as likely to have expereinced physical vioelnce , ant the hands of their own partners . Of these womens . 73% required medical agttention and 53% said they feared for their lives , this supports the view hat mate retentions trategeis are linked to phisyical vioelnce .
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evolutionary explanations of bulling
ulling cocurs because of a pwoer imbalance - a more powerful individual useso aggression deliberately and repeatedlya gainst a weaker person . Researchers haeve traditionally vieiewed bullying as a maladaptive bahviour , for example the result of poor social skills or childhood abuse .
-HOweer , OUR evolutionary ancestors , may have used bullying as an adaptive strategy , to increase their chances of surivial by promoting their own health and creating opportunities for reproduction .
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male bulling (1)
Tony Volk , et al 2012 , argue that hte characteristics associated with buling behaviour ar ttractive to females dominance , acquisition , of resources and trength .
-Bulling also has the beenefit of warding off potenital rivals . Therefore such bullying behaviour would be naturallys elected ecause these males would have greater reporductive success . Bulling ma even benefit the bull's health
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Male bullying (2)
bullying may even benefit the bull;s helth . Adolescent boys who gain a reputtion for being tough are less likely to experience aggression themseleves as other boys avoid contact with them . This benefits , their health as those at the top of a dominance hierachy experience less stress (Sapolsky 2004)
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Female bullying
In feamles bullying more often takes palce within a relationship and is a method of controlling a partner . Women use bullying behaviour to secure thier partner's fiedelity which means they continue to proivide resources for future offspirng . Again such abehviour would be naturally selected beacaus eof enhanced reproductive success . ( Campbell 1999)
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EVALUATION - gender differences
one strength , is that evolutionary theory can explain why males and females differ int heir uses of aggression .
-Lots of reserch shows tha there are gedner differences in aggression . Such differences coul dbe due to socialisation but some can be expalined in terms of adaptive strategies .
-For example Anne Campbell (1999) , argues that it is not adaptive for a female with offspring to be physically aggressive because such behaviour owuld put her on surivial at risk and tht of her child .
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evaluation geender differences (2)
So a more adaptive stategy for females is to use verbl aggression to retain a partner who provides resources . This owuld explain hwy owmen tend to dispalyv erbal rather than physical aggression . Therefore sucha rguemnts can provide upport dfor othe evolutioanry approach to explaining aggression
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cultural differences EVALAUTION
One limitation os that there are substantial cultural differences in aggressive behaiour .
-Far from being universal , there are some culutres where aggresion appears ot be almost non-existent . FOr example , the Kung San people of western Botswana in Africa , were studied by the anthropologiss Elizabeth GThomas ,w ho called them the harmless peope .
-She found they have very begative atittude towards the use of aggresiion .
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culture differences evaluation (2)
ggressive behaviour is discouaged from childhood in both boys and girls and is therefore rare .
-Those who do use it have thier sttus and reputation within the community diminished . Cultural and social norms pwoerfully constrain aggressive behaviour in this soicety .
-Therefore ,s ince some cultures do not hsow aggresiveness such behaviour may not be necessarily be adaptive .
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cultural differences - COPUNTERPOINT
However , there is a lot of controvers over how 'harless ' the kung reallya re . For example , richard lee , described the homicide rae as suprisingly high for such a peaceable people . Thee contradicitios in findings may be due ot the fact tht wha an observer sees is biasedb y hier own expectaztions and also by the particualr sample of people the observe . lThese mehodological issues , eman tha obersvaion by ousiders may not be useful (Lacks validity )
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EVALUATION - real world application
another sgtregnth is th evolutionry explanaions can be used to reduce bulling .
-One approach , to reducing bullying is to ddress a bull's perceived deficencies (assuming that they bully because they feel inferioir ).
-Howeever , although , there are several interventions based on thhis assumption , bullying is still prwvalent . Bruce Ellis e al (2016) , suggest an altenrtive straegy based on the view tha bulling is adaptive ( i.e , bullies stand to gaina dvanatges for themselves ).
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Evaluation real world application part two
The meaningful roles anti bullying intervention aims to increase the costs of bullying and the rewards of pro social alternatives . For example , by giving bullies roles and responsibilities in school thag provide an alternative source of status .
Therefore viewing bullying as an adaptive behaviour may lead to more effective anti bullying interventions
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Evaluation extra determinism versus free will
The evolutionary argument is biologically determinist . We are aggressive because of adaptations that increased the survival chances of our ancestors and are beyond our control . This implies that aggression is inevitable and is not our ‘fault’ .
-Howsver , humanistic psychologists argue aggression is subject to us excersiing our free will . Also , cognitive factors allow us to think about the consequences of our behaviour . This is supported by research into cultural differences . So aggression is not inevitable and is always our responsibility.
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Social psychological explanations of aggression
Any theory that argues aggression is the result of an interaction between an individuals chatcareristq and features of the situations in which behaviour occurs .
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Frustration aggression hypothesis
A social psychological theory that argues that anger hostility and even violence are always the outcome when we are prevented from achieving our goals .
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The original hypothesis by John Dollads and his colleague - what does it state
It states that frustration always leads to aggression and aggression is always the result of frustration.
Aggression is a psychological drive a kin to biological drives such as hunger . We experience frustration when our attempts to reach a goal wre blocked by some external factors .
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Original hypothesis (2)
This creates an aggressive drive , which leads to aggressive thoughts : behaviour , such as a violent fantasy , a verbal outburst or perhaps even physical violence . This removes the negative emotion which is called CATHARSIS . (Psychodynamic concept )
- the aggression created by the frustration is satsified , thereby reducing the drive and makign further aggression less likely . The aggressive behaviour is cathartic and we feel better .
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F-a hypothesis recognises that aggression is not always expressed directly agaisnt the source of frustration REASON 1
the cause of our frustration may be abstract such as the economic situation or the government .
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F-a hypothesis recognises that aggression is not always expressed directly agaisnt the source of frustration REASON 2
The cause may be too and we risk punishment by agreeing against it , e.g the teacher who gave you a lower grade than you expected .
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F-a hypothesis recognises that aggression is not always expressed directly agaisnt the source of frustration REASON 3
The cause may just be unavailable at the time e.g perhaps your teacher left the room before you realised what grade you got .
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What occurs because of all three of these reasons
Our aggression is deflected (displaced) into an alternative - one that is not abstract is weaker and is available (an inanimate object pet or younger siblings )
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Weapon effect part one
Even if we become angry , we still might not behave aggressively . According to Leonard Berkowitz (1989) frustration merely creates a readiness for aggression . But the presence of aggressive cues in the environment make acting upon this much more likely . Therefore cues are an additional element of the frustration aggression hypothesis .
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Weapon effect (part 2)
Berkowitz demonstrated the so-called weapon effect in a laboratory study (Berkowitz and Lepage) . Participants were given real rector shocks by a confederate creating anger and frustration.
The participants later had the opportunity to give fake shocks to the confederate .
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Berkowitz study - results
The number of shocks was heated when they was two guns on a brake compared to other conditions when there was no guns . This weapon effect supports Berkowitz contention that the presence of aggressive environmental cues stimulates aggression .
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Research on frustration aggression geen carried out a study to investigate how frustration affects aggression .
PROCEDURE
university students (men) completed a jigsaw puzzle their level of frustration was experimentally manipulated in one of three ways . For some participants , the puzzle was impossible to solve . Afor others they ran out of time as a bother student in the room confederate decided to keep interfering .
FOE RHE FHOEDNFROIP , the confederate insulted the participants as they failed to solve the puzzle . All participants later had the opportunity to give the confederates electric shocks .
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Research on frustration aggression geen carried out a study to investigate how frustration affects aggression .
FINdinfd
The insulted participants gave the strongest shocks on average , followed by the interfered group then the impossible task participants . All these three groups selected more intense shocks than a (non frustatyed control group )
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EVALUATION - RESEARCH SUPPORT
One strength is research support for a key concept of the frustration aggression hypothesis .
Any Marcus Newhall et Al conducted a meta anauykf 49 studies of displaced aggression . These studies investigated
Situations in which aggressive behaviour had to be directed agaisnt a human target other than aggression is a reliable phenomenon .
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Evaluation reseaech support -2
Frustatyed participants who were provoked but unable to retaliate directly against the source of their frustration were significantly more likely to aggress agaisnt an innocent partly than people who were not provoked . This shows that frustration can lead to aggression agaisnt a weaker or more available target .
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Role of catharsis - one limitation is reseaech showing that aggression may not be cathartic
Brad Bushman found that participants who vented their anger bt repeatedly hitting a punchbag acutallg became more aggressive rather than less .
- doing nothing was more effective at eeeduing aggression rhwn venting . Bushman argues that using venting to eee use anger is like using petrol to put out a fire .
IT DKES NOT WORK DKR EVEN LEOPLE WHO BELEIBE IN ITW BALUE QDDOESING TO BUWHMAN THE BERREE PEOPLE DEEL FYEE BENRINT RHE MORE AGGRESSIVE RHWHQ EW .
This shwoe Ahhah a central assumption of the frustration aggression hypothesis may not be a valid .
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Role of catharsis - one limitation is reseaech showing that aggression may not be cathartic
Brad Bushman found that participants who vented their anger bt repeatedly hitting a punchbag acutallg became more aggressive rather than less .
- doing nothing was more effective at eeeduing aggression rhwn venting . Bushman argues that using venting to eee use anger is like using petrol to put out a fire .
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Role of catharsis (2)
IT DKES NOT WORK DKR EVEN LEOPLE WHO BELEIBE IN ITW BALUE QDDOESING TO BUWHMAN THE BERREE PEOPLE DEEL FYEE BENRINT RHE MORE AGGRESSIVE RHWHQ EW .
This shwoe Ahhah a central assumption of the frustration aggression hypothesis may not be a valid .
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Frustration aggression link
Another limitation is that the link between frustration and aggression is complex z very early on in reseaech into the frustration aggression hypothesis it became clear that frustration does not always lead to aggression and that aggression can occur without frustration z
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Frustration aggression link (2) EVALUATION
Fhere is nothing ‘automatic’ about the link between the two . Someone who feel frustated may behave in a range of different ways . Rather than being aggressive , they may be insgead be helped or determined . Likewise someone who behaves aggressively may do so for many reasons .
Suggesting that the frustration aggression hypothesis is inadequate because it only explains how aggression arises in some situations but not others .
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Evaluation - counterpoint
HWOEBER , Berkowitz (1989) reformulated hypothesis to take account of the above criticism . His negaitve affect theory argued that frustration is just one of many aversive stimuli thag create negative feelings (affect) - others include loneliness jealousy and pain .
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Evaluation - counterpoint (2)
Aggressive behaviour is triggered by these negative feelings generally rather than by frustration specifically . The outcome of frustration can be a range of resposnes , only one of which is aggression . For example , you might feel frustated at getting a poor essay grade and become despairing , anxious , determined compavenef or whatever . Therefore frustration ;negative feelings ) can form sort of a wider explanation of what causes aggression .
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Evaluation extra - gun control
As Berkowitz (1989) said the finger pulls the trigger this means that ‘open carry’ in the us where a gun is not concealed does not cause violence in itself . Individuals are
Responsible for their use of weapons ehen when they are frustatyed .
HWOEBER Berkowitz also soain the trigger may be killing the finger . Gun Filene’s depends on the presence of cues . The open presence of a gun acts as a cue to aggressive behaviour as shown by Berkowitz and Le large .
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Social learning theory (SLT)
A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement , combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors
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Social learning theory applied to human aggression - direct and indirect learning
In social learning theory (SLT) Albert bandits acknowledged that aggression can be learned directly , through mechanisms of operant conditioning involving positive and negative reinforcement and punishment .
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Direct learning examole
So a child who angrily snatched a toy off another child will learn that aggressive behaviour is rewarding . This direct reinforcement makes it more likely that the child will learn that aggressive behaviour is rewarding .
THIS direct reinforcement NAKES IT MORE LIKELY THAT ATHE CHILD AWILL BEHAVE MORE AGGRESSIFELG WHAIN IN W SIMILAR SITUATION
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Indirect learning example
However , Bandura , also realised that aggressive behaviour often cannot be explained by such direct forms of learning , especially on humans . So he argued thag an indirect mechanism - observational learning - an accounts for social learning of most aggressive behaviours .
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Indirect learning example
However , Bandura , also realised that aggressive behaviour often cannot be explained by such direct forms of learning , especially on humans . So he argued thag an indirect mechanism - observational learning - an accounts for social learning of most aggressive behaviours .
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Observational learning and vicarious reinforcement
Children (and adult to some extent) acquire specific aggressive behaviours through observing aggressive models , such as siblings parents peers and characters in the media .
In this way ? The child has learned about aggressive behaviour , but this does not mena that they will behave aggressively themselves . As well as observing the behaviour of models children also observe the consequences of their behaviours .
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Reinforcement of behaviour explained
If the models aggressive behaviour is rewarded (or at least not punished ) then the child
Learns that aggression can be effective in getting what they want . Known as vicarious reinforcement , and it makes it more likely that the observing child will imitiayenthe model’/ aggressive behaviour .
THERE IS A PARALLEL FORM AOF INDIRECT LEWRNING CALLED vicarious punishment , if a model’s use of aggrsssion to achieve a goal is punished , an observing child is less likely to imitate that specific behaviour .
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Cognitive conditions for learning BANDURA identified four cognitive conditions needed for social learning (1)
Attention - a basic cognitive requirement is that the observer must pay attention to the model’s aggressive actions z
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Cognitive conditions for learning BANDURA identified four cognitive conditions needed for social learning (1)
Attention - a basic cognitive requirement is that the observer must pay attention to the model’s aggressive actions z
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Cognitive conditions for learning BANDURA identified four cognitive conditions needed for social learning (2)
Retention - the observe also needs to be able to remember the model’s aggressive actions , to form a symbolic mental representation of how the behaviour is performed .
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Cognitive conditions for learning BANDURA identified four cognitive conditions needed for social learning (3)
Reproduction / the observer must be able to transform the mental representation of the aggressive behaviour into actual physical action . This involves the individual mentally appraising their ability to do this .
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Cognitive conditions for learning BANDURA identified four cognitive conditions needed for social learning (4)
Motivation - the observer needs a reason to imitate behaviour , which will depend on their expectations thay behaving aggressively in a specific situation will be rewarding .
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Self efficacy (1)
Self efficacy is the extent to which we beleibe our actions will achieve a desired goal . A child’s confidence in their ability to be aggressive forward as they learn that aggression can bring rewards XD for example , consider w child who regularly hits other children to get hold of a toy and yh is ability comes easily to them .
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Self efficacy (2)
This child’s sense of efficacy develops with each successful outcome . He or she is confident that , Because their aggression has been effective in the past , it will continue to be so in the future . In other words zv they learn that aggression works and they are good at it xx
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Bandura et a Al reseaech - Bandura Ef Al famous BOdo roll PROCEDURE
Young children is good sully observed an adult model assaulting an inflatable plastic called a Bono doll . The aggressive behaviours included throwing , kicking and hitting with a mallet and during which the children were not allowed to play with some attractive toys , which created a degree of frustration . They were then taken to another room where the was a Bobo doll , plus some other toys including ones the adult model had used
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Bandura research findings
Without being instructed to do some many of these children imitated the behaviour they had seen performed by the model physically and verbally . The closeness of the imitation was remarkable in some cases it was a virtually a direct copy of what the children had observed , including the use of specific objects and verbal phrases zz
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Bandura research findings
Without being instructed to do some many of these children imitated the behaviour they had seen performed by the model physically and verbally . The closeness of the imitation was remarkable in some cases it was a virtually a direct copy of what the children had observed , including the use of specific objects and verbal phrases zz
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Bandura research (2)
Boys imitated physical aggression more than girls , but there was no difference in imitating verbal aggression xx boys were also more likely than girls to imitate a swme wrd model zz there was also another group of children who has observed an adult interacting non aggressively with the doll . Aggressive behaviour towards the hobo doll by these children were almost non existent z
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Bandura research (2)
Boys imitated physical aggression more than girls , but there was no difference in imitating verbal aggression xx boys were also more likely than girls to imitate a swme wrd model zz there was also another group of children who has observed an adult interacting non aggressively with the doll . Aggressive behaviour towards the hobo doll by these children were almost non existent z
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Evaluation - reseaech support stenfth
One strenfth of SLT is reseaech supporting its explanation of aggression Francois spoiling and Michel Bibyin found that aggressive boys ages between 9-12 years formed friendships with other aggressive boys . These friendships mutually reinforced each boys’s aggressive behaviour through modelling .
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Evaluation reseaech support on social learning theory example
The he joys would observe eachother successfully using proactive aggression ( to get what they wanted from peers) which provided reinforcement from rewarding approval of the rest of the gang . These social learning processes made imitation of aggressive behaviour by the boys much more likely as predicted by SLT .
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COUNTERPOINT AFO EVALUARION OF RESEAECH SUPPORT AOF SOCIAL LEARNIFN THEORY
However , the above study did not find similarity bween friends for reactive aggression . Reactive aggression , hot blooded , is angry retaliation in the heat of the moment . The researchers found that the boys were much less likely to infleunce eachother an aggressive out here .They observed them egenrsl kt but did not imitate them .
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Counterpoint kf evaluation reseaech support (2)
This was perhaps bevwuse the consequences of reactive aggression are unpredictable and not often as positive as they are for planned ; proscribe aggression so less reinforcing . Therefore SLT is limited because it is a relatively weak explanation or reactive aggression .
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EVALUARION - real world application strenfth of the SLT theory - belong to reduce aggression
Children readily imitate models when they observe them being rewarded for any behaviour and especially when they identify with them . This applies for any behaviour .
-One way to reduce aggression is to provide rewarded non-aggression . For instance , encouraging children to form friendships with slchiflrwj rewarded for non-))43::79! (And :I’d 043/3!;8’f them with media characters ) gives them more opportunist to model non aggressive behaviour . Therefore SLT offers practical steps to reduce the development of aggressive behaviour in children zz
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EVALUATION - Biological influences
One limitation of SLT is that it underestimated the infleunce of biological factors . Bandura recognised the role of biology because he accepted that the urge to be aggressive is an instinctive in nature behaviour z
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EVALUATION - Biological influences
One limitation of SLT is that it underestimated the infleunce of biological factors . Bandura recognised the role of biology because he accepted that the urge to be aggressive is an instinctive in nature behaviour z
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EVALUARION - biological infleuces part two
But he was equally clear that the form aggression takes is primarily lead and is the outcome of nurture . However g as we seeen on previous spreads , it is well established that there wre powerful even tic evolutionary neural and hormonal influences on aggression . SLR ABARELT ACKOWLEDHES FHESE WND CERRAINLT DOES NOT EXPLAIN them therefore , slr is an incomplete explanation of aggression as it underplays the roles of biological factors .
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EVALUARION - biological infleuces part two
But he was equally clear that the form aggression takes is primarily lead and is the outcome of nurture . However g as we seeen on previous spreads , it is well established that there wre powerful even tic evolutionary neural and hormonal influences on aggression . SLR ABARELT ACKOWLEDHES FHESE WND CERRAINLT DOES NOT EXPLAIN them therefore , slr is an incomplete explanation of aggression as it underplays the roles of biological factors .
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EVALUARION extra - research methods
Many studies into social learning and aggrsssion are conducted in controlled conditions . This means researchers can manipulate the independent variable while controlling potenital confoudnign variables . Control allows researchers to establish that social learning processes may cause aggressive behaviour .
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EVALUARION extra - reseaech methods
However e, such studies are unlike the real world social learning situations they create ideal resding conditions which generally do not exist in reality . An important on one Bandura study was that the bobo doll could not retaliate to being . There are also demand characteristics - the bobo doll was designed to be hit .
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De-individuation
A psychological state in which an individual loses their personal identify and taken on the identity of a social group when for example , in a crowd or wearing a inform . Fhe result nah be decreased concern about the EVALUARION of others .
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CrOWD bEHAVIOUR
De - individuation , is a concept originally used by Gustave , Le Bon , to explain the behaviours of individuals in crowds . Uusally , because we are easily idenitified by others , our behaviours is constrained by social norms . We live in a societ where most forms of aggression are discouraged .ut when we become part of a corwd , we lose restraint , and have the freedom to behave in ways we wouldn't otherwsie .
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crowd behaviour (2)
-We lose our sense of individual self - idenitty and responsibilt for our behaviour ..WE disrefard norms and even laws .
-Responsibilit , becomes shared throughout the crows , so we expereience less personal guilt baout directing hrmfula ggressiona t others .
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De- individuation and aggression (1)
Philip Zibardo disitnguished between idnviduated and de individuated behaviour .
--in an individuaed satte , our behaviours is rational and mormative (it conforms to social norms .)
-u de - individuated behaviours are emotional , impulsive , irrational , disinhibited and anti-rnoamtive . So , whenw e are in a de - idnvidiauted satte ,w e lose self0awareness , sotp mornitoring and eeulating our own behaviour , ignore social normas , and live in he moment , fialing to form longer term plans .
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de individuation and aggression (2)
the coniditons , of de-individuaion which promote aggressive behaviour includes darkness , drugs alcohol , uniforms , masks and sigusies . A major factor is anonymity . Acording to JOhn DIxon and Kesi Mahendran (2012), anonymity shaoes crowd behaviour . We have less fear of retribution , becuse we are a sall and unidenifiable prt of faceless crowd . The bigger the crowd , he more anonymous we are . Anonymity provies feweer opporuniies for others to judge us negatively .
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reduced self awareness (1)
the experienece of de-individuation as a part of a faceless crowd creaes a greter likelihood of aggresison .
-Bu ccordign to Seteve Prentice - DUNN and ROnald ROgers )(1982) . this is not due to anonymity directly , but due to the conseqeunces of anonymity
-they explain the process in terms of two types of self awareness .
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process one - private self awareness
this cocnerns how we pay attention to our own feelings and behviour. This is also ro reduced when we are prt of a crowd . Our attention becomes focused outwardl to the events around us , so we pay less attention to our own beliefs and feelings . We are less self critical and less thoughtful which promotes a de-individuation state .
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process two -public self awareness
refers to how much we care about what other people think about of our beaviours . This is also reduced in crowds , we realise hat we are just one individual amongst many , we are anonymous , and our behviour is less likely to be judhed by othes . We no longer care about how others see us , so we become less accountable to our aggressive actions .
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researchh on de - individuation - david dodd wa a psychology teacher who ddeveloped a classroo excersise to illustrate de - idnviidaution - PROCEDURE
He asked 229 postgraduate psychology studnets in 13 classes , his question "if you could do anything humanly possible , with complete assurance , that you would not be detected or held responible what would you do " ,
-the studnets knew their resposnes were completely anonymous . THree indpenedent rates who did not oknow the hypothesis decided which categoires of antisocial behaviour he responses belonged to .
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reserch on de-individuation - -FINDINGS
DODD , found that 36% , of the resposnes involved some form of antisocial behaviour . 26% , were actual criminial facts ,t he most common of which was ro a bank , a few studnets opted for murder rape and assasination of a poltiical figure
-Only 9% , of responses were prosocial behaviours , such as helping people . In terms of how people imagine they would behave , this study demonstartes the link between anonymity , de - idnividuation and aggrsive behaviour .
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evaluaiton - deindividution RESEARCH SUPPORT
one strength of the rsearch is the upport for de-idnividuation .
-Karen DOuglas an Craig McGarty , looked at aggressive online behviour in chatrooms and uses of instant messaging . They found a srong correltion between anonymity nd flaming .
-They found that the most aggrssive messages were sent by those who chose to hide their real idenitifies .
-This is a common behaviour of online trolls . It has been implicaed in high-rpofile cases of self harm and even suicidie . This supports a link between aggressivebehaviour and anonymity key element of deinividuation .
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evaluation de individuation COUNTERPOINT
however , there is also evidence , that de-inidviduaiton doe snot always lead to aggression . In Kenneth GERGEN , et al deviance in the dark sutdy , gorups of eight strangers wwere placed in a completely darkened oom for an hr .
-THey were told o do just whatevee they wanted , they could not idenitfy eachother and they would neever meet again . They ver quickly stopped talking an sstated touching an kissin eachoter intimatel .
.
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deindividuation evaluation counterpoint
-SECOND STUDY Gergen , told new partipants they would come face to face aftereards , in this case ,t he amountof otcuhing nd kissing was much lwoer . Therefore de-idniduation may not always lead to aggression
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evaluation - deindividuation Real world application
another strength of deindividuation is that it can explain aggressive beahviour sin baiting crowds .
Leon Mann investiagted instances of sucidial jumpers he idenitfied 21 cases reported that in us newspaers crowd gather to bait a jumper enoucrgaed him or her to jump . These incidients tended to occur in darkness . The crows were large and jumpers were relatively distnat fromt he crowd .
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evaluation - deindividuation Real world application (2)
-These are the conditions predicted by de-individuaiton theory to lead to a state of deindividuaiton in crowds which lead to aggressive baiitng .
-THEREFORE , there is some validity , tot he idea that large grous can beocme aggrssive if deidividuted faceless crowd .
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evaluation 0 deindividuiton 0 role of norms
one limitiatio is that de-idnviduated behaviour is normative rather than anti-normative .
-deindividuation theory argues that we behave in ways that are contrary to social norms . )(disinhibited aggression ) , when we are less aware to social nroms (disinhibited aggression ) , whenw e are less aware of our private identityt , However , in the SIDE model (soxial idneity model of our private idenitty . HOwever , in their SIDE model RUSSEL spears and Marin LEa (1992) , argue that de-individuation , actually leads to behaviour that conorms to group norms .
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evaluaiton - deinvidution of role of norms (2)
THese may be antisocial norms , but could equally well be prosocial norms (e.g , helping ) .
-This happens because anonymity , shifts an individuals's atention from his or her private identity ot their social idneitity as a group memeber . SUggesting that people in a de-individuated state remain sensitive to nroms rather than ignoring htem .
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evaluation extra - nurture and nature
de individuation , highlights factors related ot nurture in aggressive behaviour . These include anything tht reduces private and public self - awareness . people who would not usually behave aggresivelly do so when part of a croed .
-Perhaps the ultimate example of this is online behaviour .
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evaluation nature vs nture part two
HOwever , we have seen on previous sprea hat naure plays an improtant role in causing ggressiv beahviorus . These causes are egentic etholgoical and evoltuoanry . This apporach suuggests that people re gressive in crowd perhaps because the situation makes you feel stressed .
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What is institutional aggression
aggressive or violent behaviour that takes place within the social context of a prison or other formal organised setting .
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dispositional explanation
an explanation of behaviour that highlights the importance of the individual's personality (their disposition) such explanations are often contrasted with situational explanations .
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what are situational explanations
an explanation that identifies the causes of behaviour as existing within the environment , which may include other people , such explanations are contrasted with dispositional explanations ..
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What is the importation model
It is a dispositional explanation ;
John Irwin and Donald Cressey's importation model argues that prisons are not completely insulated from everyday life outside in the real world .
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what does the importation model suggest is being imported ?
prison inmates come from the outside world and they bring with them (import) , a subculture typical of criminality , including beliefs norms attitudes Invidia characteristics .
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what is the dispositional explanation based on
individual nature and also nurture . The willingness of inmates to use violence inside prison to settle disputes reflect their lives before they were imprisoned , as patrick mcmanimon put it people who prey on others on the street prey on others in prision , and then these influence their use of aggression to establish power .
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what does the dispositional model say aggression is a product of ?
Individual characteristics of inmates and not of the prison environment .
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Matt Delisil et al and prisoner characteristics that are linked to outcomes
he studied a group of juvenile offenders in Californian institutions who had negative backgrounds such as childhood trauma , and these individuals were importing these characteristics into prison .
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Matt Delisil et al and prisoner characteristics that are linked to outcomes RESULTS
The researcher compared this group with a control group of inmates who did not have these negative features . The negative inmates were more likely to engage in suicidal activity , sexual misconduct and acts of physical aggression .
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what is a situational explanation of aggression
the deprivation model ; places the causes of institutional aggression within the prison environment itself a situational explanation . Harsh prison conditions are stressful for inmates who cope by resorting to ahhressive , and violent behaviour , .
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what do harsh conditions in prisions include
psychological factors (deprived of freedom and sexual intimacy , and physical factors ( deprived of goods and services )
why is deprivation of material goods closely linked to aggression , as it increases competition amongs inmates .
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deprivation model , how else is aggression influenced
nature of the prison regime . If it is unpredictable and regularly uses lock ups to control behaviour then this creates frustration , reduces stimulation by barring other , more interesting , activities and reduces even further access to goods which is a recipe for violence which becomes an adaptive solution to the problem of deprivation .
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what did Benjamin Steiner investigate
Benjamin Steiner investigated factors predicting aggression , in 512 prising inmate on inmate violence was more common in prisons were there were was overcrowding and inmates in protective custody . These are prison level factors because they are independent of individual characteristics of prisoners . They reliably predicted aggressive behaviour in line with the deprivation model .
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Research support - one strength for the importation model
scott camp and Gerald - 561 inmates with criminal histories and predistortions to aggression .
-half placed in low secuiry californian prisions and half in high security
-within two years there was no significant difference between prisons in the number of prisoners involved in aggressive misconduct .
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Research support - one strength for the importation model - conclusion
the researchers concluded that features of the prison environment are less important predictors of aggressive behaviour than characteristics of inmates this is strong evidence for importation because of random allocations of inmates .
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limitation of the importation model - it ignores key factors .
one limitation is that the importation model ignores key factors John Dilulio claims that the importation model ignores other factors that influence prisoners behaviour such as they way the prision is run , so he proposed acmm , stating poorly managed prisions have mnore violence ,
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what does poor management in prisons consist of .
weak leadership , a thriving culture of unofficial rules , staff who remain , distant from inmates and few opportunities for education . Therefore importation is an adequate explanation because instructional factors are probably more important than inmate characteristics .
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strength of the deprivational model
mark Cunningham analysed 35 inmate homicides in Texas prisons between 2000 and 2008 , found that the perpetrators motivation for thir violent behaviour was linked to the clemmer model . MANY of the homicides followed arguments between cell sharing inmates where boundaries were judged to have been crossed . Particularly important were arguments over drugs , sexual activity and personal possessions ,
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contradictory research
one limitation is research contradicting the deprivation model . The model predicts , that a lack of heterosexual contact can lead to high levels of aggressive behaviour in prisons , however Christopher Hensley studied 256 conjugal visits there was no link between these visit and reduced aggressive behaviour so situational factors do not substantially affect prison violence ,.
