Memory Flashcards
1
Q
What is coding
A
Information is stored in memory in different forms , depending on the memory store . The processor converting information between different forms
2
Q
Short term memory
A
The limited -capacity memory store . In STM , coding is mainly acoustic (sounds) , capacity is between 5 and 9 items on average , duration is about 18 seconds
3
Q
Long term memory
A
The permanent memory store . I. LTM , coding is mainly semantic (meaning) it has unlimited capacity and Dan store memories for up to a lifetime
4
Q
Alan Baddeley - gave different list of words to four groups of participants
A
Group 1 acoustic similar (words that sound similar )
Same with group 2
Group3 semantically words with similar meanings
Group 4 same as group 3
5
Q
Alan Baddeley study - what did participants do
A
-Participants were sshown the original words and aksed to recall htem in the correct order .
-When they did this task immdeidatley , recalling froms tm , they tended to do wotde with ACCOUSITCALLY simialr words .
-When they recalled the word lsit after a time interval of 200 minutes , reclalling form thier LTM , they did worse withte semnaticlalys iialr words .
6
Q
what did alan baddeleeys sudie suggest
A
-information id coded acoustically in STM and semantically in LTM
7
Q
WHAT IS CAPACITY
A
THE AMOUNT OF information that cam ne held in a memory’s tore .
8
Q
who did research on capacity and what was the sutdy /
A
Joseph Jacobs (1887)
found out by measuring DIDGIT SPAN .
-r.g the researcher reads out four digits and the participants recall these out loud in he correct order .
-If this is correct , the researcher reads out five digits and so on until the participants can recall this order CORRECTLY .
9
Q
what did joseph jacob find out
A
mean span for digits across all participants was s9.3 times , the mean span for letters was 7.3
10
Q
span of memory and chunking
-who did this research ?
A
-George Miller (1956)
-Made observations of every day practice (e.g noted that things come in seven )
-Miller though that the span (i.e. capacity ) of STM is about 7 items plus or minus 2 .
-But he also noted that people can recall five words as easily as they can recall five letters .
-*We do this by CHUNKING - grouping sets of digits or letters imto units or chunks .
11
Q
what is duration
A
the length of time information can be held in memory
12
Q
duaration of stm
-who did the research
-how short is the duration of stm
A
-Margaret and Lloyd Peterson (1959) tested 24 students in eight trials .
-One each trial the student was given CONSONANT SYLLABLE (such a s YCG) to remember .
-They were also given a 3 digit number .
-Students counted backwards until told to stop , (the counting backwards was to prevent any mental rehearsal of consonant syllable - which would increase the duration of STm memory for the syllable .
13
Q
duration of stm
-who did the research
-how short is the duration of stm (2)
A
-on each trial , they were told to stop after varying periods of time 3,6,7 12,15,18 seconds (the retention interval ) .
-THe fidnings were simialr to the studnets data on the left .
14
Q
What were the findings ?
A
-After 3 secpdms abergal recall was 80% .
-After 19 seconds it was abou 3% .
-PETEROSON and petersons findings suggested that STM duration may be about 18 seconds ,. UNLESS we repeat info over nad over (Verbal rehearsal ( .
15
Q
Duration of LTM
-who did the research
A
-Harry Bahrick (1975)
-studied 392 american participants aged between 17 and 74.
-HIgh school yearbooks were obtained from the participants or directly from some schools.
-Recall was tested in various was , tested in variou s ways , including photo recognition test of 50 photos , some from the particiapntshigh school year books .
2. free recall tests where pariticpants recalled the names of their graduaign class /
16
Q
duaration of ltm results .
A
-Participants tested within 15 years , of graduationw ere abour 90 % accuarate om photo rrecogonitoin .
-After 48 years , recall declined to about 70% for photo recongniton .
-Free recall was less acurrate than recognition - about 60% after 15 yeats dropping to 30% after 48 yeats .
-This shown that LTM , may last up to a lifetime for soem material .
17
Q
EVALUATION - separate memory stores
-Strength of Baddeleys study
A
ONE STRENGTH - of Baddeleey’s study is that it idenitified a clear differemce netwee two memory stores .
-Later research showed that there are some expetiont to Baddeley’s findings . BUt the idea that STM , uses more acoustic coidn and LTM mostly semantic has stood the test of time .
-This was an improtant step in our understadnign ofthe memorys ytem ,w hich led to to the MULTI-STORE MODEL .
18
Q
EVALUATION - Artificial stimuli
–Weakness of Baddeleys studie
A
-One limiaition of Bddeley’s study was that it used quite articical stimiuli rather than meanignful material .
-e.g words lsits ahd no personal meannting to participants . So , Baddleey;s findings amy not tellus mcuha bout coding in different kind of memeory tasks , especiallly in veerday life .
-when processing more meaningful information , people may use semantic coding even for STM task,
-This suggest tha the findings fromt hi study has limited applications.
19
Q
EVALUATION - A valid study
-strneght of jacobs study
A
-Strength is that is has been REPPICLATED .
-THe sutdy is a very old one and early reasearch iin pscuholgy often lacked adequate xcontrols .
-For example , some participants digit spans have been underestiamte dbecausetheyw ere distracted during testing (confouning varbiable ).
-Despite this ,, Jaco’s fidnings have been confirmed by other , better controlled studies (bOPP 2005) .
- This suggests that the findings from this study have limited application .
20
Q
EVALUATION - not so many chunks
-One limitiation of Miller’s research is that he may have oversitmaed STM capaacity .
A
Nelson Cowan (200) reveieiwed other reseaech and cocnldued that the capaictu of STM s only baotu 4 plus or mnus 1 chunks .
-THIS SUGGESTS that the lower end of Miller;s estimate (five items is mroe approptiate than seven tiems .
21
Q
EVALAUTION - Meaningless stimuli in STM STUD
-One limtiaiotn of Peterson and Peterson;s stud is that the stimulus was artficial
A
-The study is no completrly irrelevant because we do soemtimes try to rememebr fairly menaingless mateirals (phone numbers)
-EVen so , recallin consosant sylables does nto reflect most everyday memeory activites where was we are trying to rememer in menaingful . Meanign it lacked EXTERNAL VALIDIDTY .
22
Q
EVALUATION - High external validity
A
One strength of bahrcicks alstud is that it has HIGH EXTERNAL VALIDITY .
-This is becasue the researches investiated meannignul mrmeoies (peoples names+ faces ) .
-When stufi on Ltm wre conducted with meanignless pcitures to be rememebred recalll rates were lowerrd.
-This suggests that Bahricks et al’s fningd reflect a more ‘real;estiamte of the duration of Ltm .
23
Q
Multi-store model
A
Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin’s (1968-1971) multi - store m odal MSM , describe how information flows through the memory system SEE diagram on page 48 .
-Model suggests that memory is made up of three stores linked by processing .
24
Q
Multi-store model (MSM) exam definition
A
-A representation of how memory works in terms of three stores called the sensory register , short-term memory 9STM) AND LONG TERM MEMEORY (ltm).
-It also describes how information is transferred from one store to another , what makes some memories last and what makes some memories disappear .
25
sensory register
-At simuli from the environment pass intot he sensory register .
-This parts of memory comprises several registers (sensory memory store) , one for each others five sense s.
-Coding in each store is modality - specific (dpeendso nt he sense ) .
-For example , the store coding for visual informationn ishte ICONIC MEMEORY and the store codign accousitically (sund) is echoc moeemry .
-There are othere sensory stores for touch , tase and smell ifnroamtion /
26
duration of material in the sensory register
-very breif - less than half a second .
-the sensory refisters ahev avery hih capcaity ,f or exmpal o ver hudnred millliocels inone eye storign data .
-ifno passses further intot he ememor sytem only if you paya ttention to it .
27
short term memory
-information in stm is coded mainly acoustically and lasts about
-stm is more of a temporary store .
-stm is a limited capacity store , because it can only contain a certain number of 'things' before forgetting occurs .
-on the previous spread we noticed that the capacity of stm is between 5-9 items of info . though cowans research suggests that it is five not nine .
28
short term memory - maintenance rehearsal
ocrrus when we repeat (rehearse) material to urselves over naod over again .
-We can keep the information in our stms as long as we rehearse it .
-if we rehearse it enoguh it passes into our Longterm memroy .
29
Long term memory
-This is the potentially permanent memory store for information that has been rehearsed for a prolonged time .
-We have already seen that LTMS are coded mostly semantically (in temrs of menaing ) .
-Psychologists believe that its duration may be up to a lifetime .
-For example , as we sawi in the orevious spread , Bahrick et al . (1975) fouund that many of their participants were able to recognise the names and faces of their school classmates almost 50 years after graduating .
-The capacity of the LTM is thorght o be practically unlimited .
-According to the MSSM , wehnw e wan to recall ifnormaitonf rom Ltm , it has be transferred back into STM by a proces called retrieval .
30
Evaluation research support
-One strength of the MSM is support from studies showing that LTM and STM are different .
-For example , Alan Baddeley (1966 , see previous spread) found that we tend to mix up words that have similar meanings when we use our LTMS .
-Further support comes from the studies of capacity and duration we encountered in the previous spread .
-These studies clearly show that STM and LTM are separate and independent memory stores ,a s claimed by the MSM .
31
counterpoint for the msm
-despite such apparent support , in everyday life we form memories related to all sorts of useful things - people's support the MSM used none of these materials . Instead they used digits , letters \9jacobs) and sometimes words Baddeley .
-they even used what are known as consonant syllables that have no meaning \9peterson and Peterson ) .
-This means that msm may not be a valid model of how memory work sin our everyday lives where we have to remember much more meaningful information .
32
more than one stm store
-one limitation of the msm is
-One limitation of Msm is evidecne there is more thanone stm store .
tim shallice and elizabeth warrington (1970) studied a client then refrerred to as KF who had a clinical memory disorder called amnesia . KF'S STM for digits was very poor when they were read out loud to him .
33
card continued
But his recall was much better whe he read the digits to himself.
-Further studies of KF (and others ) showed that there could even be another short-term store for non-verbal sounds (noises) .
-This evidecne suggests that MSM is wrong in claiming that there is just one STM store processing different types of information (visual)
34
elaborative rehearsal
-another limitiation of the mss is that prolomnged rehearsal is not needed to tranfer to LTM .
-According to the MSM , what maters about rehearsal is the amount of it - the more you rehearse something , the more likely it is to transfer to LTM . This is prolonged rehearsal .
35
elaborative rehearsal (2)
-But Gergus Craik and Michael Watkins (1973) found that the type of rehearsal is more improtant than he amount .
-Elaborative rehearsal is needed for long-temr storage . This occurs when you link the inofrmation to your exisiting kmnwodleeg or you hink about whati means .
-This means that inofrmation c an be transferred to LTM , without prolonged rehearsal .
-THIS SUGGESTS that MSM doe snot fully explain how long term storage is achieved .
36
EVALUATION EXTRA - meaningless stimuli in the STM STUDY
-One limitation of Peterson and Peterson's study is that the stimulus material is artificial .
#-the study is not completley irrelevant because we do sometimes try to rememeber failry meaningless Materia .
-even so recalling consonnt sllables does not reflect most everyday memory activities where what we are trying to remember is meaninglful . Menaing it lacked external validity .
37
EVALUATION EXTRA - high external validity
-One strength of Bahrick et al's study is that it has high external validity . This is because the researchers investigated meaningful memories \9i.e of people's names and faces \0.
-When studies on LTM were conducted with meaningless pictures to be remembered , recall rayes were ;pwers (Shepard 1967) .
-THis suggests that Bahricks et al'.'s findings relfect a more findings reflect a more 'real' estimate of the duration of LTM .
38
EVALUATION - EXTRA
Bygone model
-Atkinson and Shiffrin based the MSM on the research evidence available at the time that showed STM and LTM to be single memory stores , separate and independant from each other .
-However , there is a lot research evidence that LTM , like STM is not a single memeorys tore .
-For example , we coul dhave one long - term store for our memories of the facts about the world , and we have a different one fo rour memories of hwo to ride a bicyle .
-combine with research showin there is more than one type of stm and more tha one type ofo rehearsal .
-the msm is an oversimplified model of meory .
39
Endel Tulving was one of the first cognitive pscyhologists tp realise the multistore model's view of long term memory was too simplisitc and inflexible.
Tulving proposed that there are in fact three LTM stores containing quite different types of infromation .
-He calls them
-EPISODIC
SEMANTIC
PROCEDURAL
40
Episodic memory definition
A long term memory store for personal events . It includes memories of when the events occurred and of the people . pbjects places ad behaviours involved. Mmeories from this store have to be tertieved consciously and with effrot .
41
Semantic memory
a long term memory store for our knowldge of the world . This includes fa cts and our knowledge of wha words and concepts mean . These memories usually also need to be recalled deliberately .
42
procedural memory
a long term memory store for our knowldege of how to do things . This includes our memorie sof learned skills .
-We usually recall these memories without making a conscious or deliberate effort .
43
epsiodic memory
epsiodic memeory refers to our ability to recall events (epsiodes) from our lives .
-This has been likened to a diary , a record of daily personal experiences . Some example are ; your most recent ot the dentistd or concert you went to . These memories are compex .
-First of all hey are ;time stampled' in other words you remember when they happened as well as what happened . Episodic memories also store information about how events relate to each other at a time .
44
episodic memory (2)
second , your memory of a single episode will incldue several elemnts , such as people and places , objects and behaviours . All of these memories are interwoven to produce a single memory .
-Third you have to make a conscious effort to recall episodic memories . You do this quickly , but you are still aware that you are searching for your memory of what happened when you went to the densits .
45
Semantic Memory
-This store contains our shared knowledge of the world .
-It has been likened to a combination fof amcuopaedia and a dictionary so it included knowledge of such things such as how to aply to university what an orange tastes like .
-your knowedge of an impressive number of concepts .
-These memories are not time-stamped . We don't usullyy remember when we first HEAR bout the film frozxen for example .
-semantic kknmwodlge is lwaa ersonaland more facts we all share .
-it contains an immense collection of material which given its nature is constnaly being added to , according ot TUVLING , less vulnerbale to distortion and forgetting than episodic memeory
46
47
procedural
his is our memory for actions or skills , or basically how we do things .
-We can recall these memories without conscious awareness or much effort \9eventually ) .
-a good example is driving - our ability becomes automati c thorgh practise .
-These are the sorts of skills we might even find quite hard oto someone else try to descirw what your doing as you drive the tasks will become more difficulr .
48
Evaluationn
Clinical evidence
-One strength is evidence from the famous case studies of HM and Clive Wearing .
-EPIOSIDC MEMORRY iin btoh men was severy impaired due to brian damage (caued by an operayion snd infeciton respectivel ) .
HOWEVER , their semantic memory ws relativelu unffected . for example he undersood meaning of words
-THEIR PORCEDURAL memories ,w ere also intact they bothknew how to walk and speak , and CLIVE wearing ( a professional muscian 0 still knew how to read music , sing and play hte piao .
-THIS EVIDECNE supports tTUlving view ha there are differen memory stores in LTM - one sotre can be damged but other stores are unaffected .
49
Counterpoint
Clinical evidence
studying people with brai injuries can help researchers to understad howmemor is supposed to work normally .
-But clinical studies are not perfect .
- MAJOR LIMITTION - is that they lack control of varibables .
-The brain injuries experienced by particnts were usually UNEXPECTED .
50
counterpoint (2)
-The researcher has no knowledge of the indivudal's memor before the damage . Without this , it is dificul to judge exxactly how much worsei i afterwrds.
-This laci of contorl limits what clinical stuies can tells us about different types of LTM.
51
EVALUTATION
Conflicting neuroimagin evidence
-One limitation is that there are conflicting research findings linking types of LTM to areas of the brain .
-For exmple , Rndy Buckner and Steven PEetersen (1996) reviewed evidence regardign the location of Semantic and episodic memory .
-They concluded that semanitc memor is located in the left sid of the PREFRONTL CORTEX and epsiodic memory on the right .
52
conflicitng neuroimagin evidence (2)
However , other research llins he left prefrontal cortext with epsidoci memeories nd the right prefrontal cortex with semanitc memories (TULVING ET AL 1994).
-This challenges any neurophysiological evidecne to support types of memorya s here is poor agreement on where each type might be located .
53
Evalutation
Real-world application
-nother stregnth is that understandign types of LTM allows psycholgists to hep people with memory problems .
FOR EXAMPLE , as people age , the experience memory loss . But research ah shown this seems t be specific to epsiodic memory - it becomes hardee to recll memories of personal events/experiences tht occured relatively recently though past epsioidc memories remin intct .
.
54
EVALUATION
Real-world applicaiton (2)Sylvie Belleville et all (2006) devised n itnervention toimprove epsiodic memories in older pople .
-The trained participants perfroemd better ona est o epsiodic memory after training than a control group .
-This hsows that distiniguishing etween tpes of LTM enables speciifc treatments to be devlepod
55
EVALUATION EXTRA
-morerecently TUlving (2002) ahs taken the view that epsiodic memory is a specialised subcategory of smemanitc memory so essentiall the smae store )
-Hissearch showed that some poeple with amnesia have a functionign semanitc memory alongisde a damged episodc memory .
-BUT he also condluded it is NOT POSSILE to have a fucnitoning epsiodic memory with a damged semanitc memory .
-HOWEVER ,john HOdges an dKAELAYN patterson founde that som people with alxheimers disease ould form new EPSIODIC memories ut not semanic meomries .
DOES THIS SUGGSTS EPSIODC AND SEMANITC MEORIES RE DIFFEETN ? rot he same ?
56
Working Mmeory Model (WMM)
Am represnetaation of short-term memory (STM) . It suggests that STM is a dynamic porcessor fo differnet types of inofrmation using suits co-ordinated by a central decision making sytem .
57
Centrall Executive (CE)
Tthe component of the WMM that co-ordiates the activities of the three subsytems in memory . It lso llocateds processing resources o thoe activities .
58
central executive (2)
has a @superviosry@ role . It monitors incomign dta , focuse and divdies oru limited atteniton nd allocates 'slave sytems' to taks .
-th CE hs a very limited processing capacity and DOES NOT store information .
59
Phonoloical loop (PL)
The component of the WMM that processes information in terms of SOUND .
-This includes both written and spoken mgerial . t is divided into the phonoloigcals tore and the articulatory process .
60
Pholoigcal loop (2)
One of the lve sytems is the pl dealign with auditory info (coding is acoustic .
-PRESERVPES the order in which info rrives . PL SUBDIVDIED INO
-Phological store - which stores the wrod you hear .
-ARTiculatory process - allwoign MAINENCANCE REHSAL - whichis when ou rpeat words in a loop to keep them in the working memory while they are neeeded .
-Caoacurty of this loop is belived to be wo second worth hat you can say .
61
Visuo-Spatial sketchpd (VSS)
The componen of the WMM thaat processes viual and spatial information i =n a mental space often called our 'inner eye'
62
VSS (2)
The second slave sytem is the visuo - spatial sketchpadd (VSS) .
-STORING VISUAL AND/OR spatial info when required like if u were asked to visualise how mayw idnown s htere are in our house .
-According to Baddeley (2003) is abouy 3 ro 4 0bjects .
ERICHARD LOGIE subdivided VSS into
-Visual cache - storing visual dat
-inner scribe - recording the arnagements of objects in the visual field .
63
Epsiodic BUffer
the componen tof the WMM tht brings together mateiral from the other ubstyems o a single memory rather than separe stands .
-It also porvides a bridge bewee the working memory and long-term memory .
64
episodic buffer
-the third slave sytem is he epsiodic buffer .
-This was added to the mdoel by baddleey in 2000.
-It is a temporary stoe frr infomration , integraing the vidusl , spsatial and veral innfo proceses by other stores and mainaining a snse of time sequeccnign - basicllyr ecordign event that are hppening .
-It can be seen as the storage component of the centrl excecuitve and has limpited cpcaity of about four chunks .
-epsiodic buffer links workin memory long term memroya nd wider cognitive processes such aas percpetion .
65
EVALUATION
Clinical evidence
-Oone strenfth is support from Tim SHalllice and eLIZABETH WARRINGTON case study of patient KF .
-After his brain injury , KF , had poor STM ability for audiotry informtion but could process visual info nromally for isntance ltters and digits recallwas better when he read it rather than it ws read to him .
-KF'S phonological loopws damged but his vss was intct .
-THIS FINDING strogoly supports the existence of separate visul and accousitc memorys tores .
66
COUNTERPOINT
Clinical Evidecne
However it is unclear whether KF had other cognitivie impairments (apart from damage to his phonologicl loop _ which might hve fected his perfromance on memory tasks . (his accdient ws casued y a motorcycle acciden t)
-Tehe TRAUMA inovvled may have affected his cofnitive perfromance quite apart from anbrai inkruy .
-CHALLENGING evidence that comes from clincla studies of people with brain injuries that may have affected manyd ifferent sytems.
67
EVALUATION
dual task perfroamcne
Dual-task perfromance
-ANother strength is tha studies of dual -task perfromance support the sepearate existence of the vs .
-When Baddeley et al (1975) carried out visiual and ebrbal ask at he same time thier perfroamnce on each was SIMILAR to when they carried out the taks sseperett y.
*-HOwever , when both tkss where viusl or bth verbal , performanc eon both decclined substantially . This is because ,, both visual tkss compete for the same slvesytm VSS . Whereas here is no competition when perforimign a verbal and visual task together .
-tHIS SHOWS HERE MST E A SEPARATE SLAVE SYTEM (the vss) THAT PROCSSES visull input (nd for oNE FOR VERBL PROCESSIN ,THE PL .
68
EVALAUTION
Nature of the central executive
One limittion is that there is a lack of clarig over thenature of the centrl excecuitve .
-Badeley (2003) Baddleey himslef recognised this when he aid @the centrl execuitve is the most improtant but the lest udnerstood component of the working memory .
-The CE needs to be mroe clealry specified thn just being simply 'attention' .
-For example , somr pdyholgits beleived tha the CE may conists of separate sucomponents .
-Meanin gtht the CE is unsatisvotry vompoennt and thischllenges the integriy of the WMM.
69
validity of the moel (2)
However , these studies use taks tha are very unlike the takss we perform in our everdy lvies 9e.g idenitfying the correct letters sch as a nd b are reclling radnom sequence of lteer s.
-they are also carried out in highly -ctonrolled lab contions (where presnetnaion of stimiuli is precisely it=tiemd )
ON BALANCE ,d o DUAL -TASKS studies support or challenge hte working memory model.
69
Evaluastion Extra
-Validity of the model
-We have seen that dual task studies support the WMM because two tasks that share a subsytem are much ahrde to perform together than tasks tha tinolve separate subsytems .
-Therefpre there must e separate components in workign memory (e.g vs and pl)
70
Interference
forgetting because one memory blocks another ,causing one or both memories to be distorted or forgotten .
71
inteference has long term memory
intererence has been propsoed mainly as an explnation for forgetting in long term memory .
72
types of interference
IT IS VERY LIKELY THAT TWO (OR MROE MEMORIES THAT ARE INTERFERING WITH EAHCOGHER WERE stored at different times . So pscyhologyistd recognise that there are TWO TYPES OF INTERFRENCE
73
Proactive interference (PI)
forgetting occurs when older memories , alredys tored ,d isurpt the recll of newer memories .
The degree of forgetting is greater hwen the memories are simialr .
74
Retroactive intereference (RI)
Frogetting occurs when newer memories disrupt the recll of older memories alrey stored .
-The degree of fogeting is again greater when the memories are simialr .
75
Research on effects of similarity
In both PI and RI the inerferce is WORSE when the memories 9or learning ) are siiilar , discovered by JOhn McGeogh and William Mcodnalnd (1931)
76
research on effects of similarity PROCEDURE
Mcn=oth the duded stidied retroctice interference by chining theamount og simialirty between two sets of materials .
-participants had to learn list of 10 words until the could remember them with 1005 accurcacy .
-They then learned a newlsit .
There was six feoups who had to learn differnt rpes of new lsits
like g1 synonyms g2 anonym
g5 consonant dyllables
77
FFindings and conlcutions
When the participnts wer asked to recall the original lis odf word , the most simialr materil (synonyms) ahd htee worst recall.
--THIS SHOWS INTERFERENE is the srogest when the memories re simialr , The finidngs arere shown on the graph on paage 54 .
78
explanantion of the effects of similarity
The resaon simialrity affects recl may be for one of two reasons .
-i could be due to PL previously sotred informtion maks NEW similr information MORE DIFFCULT to store .
-Or it could be due to RI - new information overwrites previous simialr memories becuase of the simialrit.
79
EVALUATION
Real-word interference
One strengh is that there is evidence of intereference efects in more everydys ituations .
-Alan Baddeleya dn Graham Hich (1977) asked rugby paleyrs to recal the nmes of team hey played gaisnt durig a seaosn .
-All plyers had thr dme im intrvl but hte number of intervening games varied due ot some players missing idue to injruy .
-Players who had PLAYED THE MOST GMAES had the poorest recall . ]
-THIS STUDY shows that interference cna operat in t least some REAL WORLD SITUAITONSS increasing VALIDITY of this hoery .
80
EVVALUTAION REAL WORLD INTERRFERENCE COUNTER POINT
interfernece may cause some forgetingeverday siturations but it iss unual .
-This is because the conditiosn necessary for interference to occur aare realtvel RARE .
-This isvery unlie labstuides where the hihgd egree of contorl emans a researcher can create ideal conditions for interfeerence ,.
-For instance , as ww have seen on his spread ,t wo memories have o be fairly simialr ot be ommterfere with eachohter (or sets of learning) .
I order to intefere with eachogher .
-thi smay happen occasionally in everday life but not often .
THIS SUGGESTS that modt forgetting may be beter expalined byother theoires suchas retrieval failure due to lack of cues .
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Interference and cues
One limitation is that interference is temporary and can be overxome b using cues .
-ENdel Tulvign and Joseph Psotka gave participants liss of words organsed into catgeories , one list a time ( participants werent todl wat the categories are ).
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inteference and cues (2)
recall averaged 70% for the first list , but becmae PROGRESSIVELY WORSE , as particpants learned each addtioanl lsit (proactive einterference ).
-But had the words reallyd isppeared from LTM or were they stil avaiavble ?
-At the end of the porcedure ,t he participnts were given a cued recll test - theyw ere told the names of the cgeories.
-Recall rose agian to about 705.
-THIS SHOWS tht inteference cuses a temporary loss of ccesibilty to material that is sirll in LRM , a finding not predicted by interference thory .
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Support from drug stufies
comes from evidence of retorgrade facilitation .
-Anton Coeneen and Gilles van Luiketlaar gae participants lst of words snd sekd them tor ecall this lsit ,a ssuming the inervening experiences would acg as inteference .
-The found , that when a lsit of words was learnd under the influence of the drug diaxepam , recl one week lter as poor compred with the control group .
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support from drug studies (2)
bt when a list ws learned before the durgw as taken , later recall was better than the placebp . S o the drugactualaly IMPROVED reca;; pf amterial learned beforehand (joHN wixted 2004) .
-Sihhesys yjay yje drih [rvents new inofrmation \9experienced after tking drug) , reaching prts of the brain involed in processing mermoeis , so it cnnot intefere RETROACTIVELY with information alredy stored .
-THIS FINDING SHOWS that forgetttign an be due to interference - reduce the interference and you EEDUCE THE FORGETTING .
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EVALUATION EXTRA
Validity issues
-Most stuidies support inteferencetheorya re lab-based so researches can control vriables (time betwee learnin nd recll etc).
-Contorl over confoduing variables also means stuides show a clear link between interference and forgetting .
BUT , these studies use articial mterials and undrealsitic . In every day lif wwe often learn soemthng and recall it much later (when revising )
-ON BALANCE , is inteferenc e, a VALID EXPANATION for fogetting ?
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Retrieval failure
a form of forgetting .It occurs when we don't have the necessary cues to acess memroy .
The memory is available but not acessible unless a suitbalr cue is provided .
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cue
a trigger of informatopn thaat allows us to acess memory .Suc cues may be meaningful or may be indirecly linked by being enconded at the time of learning .
-Indirect cues may be exernal (environemntal context) or intenral (mood or defree of drunkness
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Encoding specificity principle
Ended tulving 1983 reviewed research into retrieval failure and discovered consistent pattern to findings. He summarises pattern and called encoding specificity principal. This statement that if it’s going to be helpful.- has to be 1. Present at encoding (when we learn the mate)
2. Present of retrieval(when we are recalling it ) . It follows from this that if the queues available, encoding and retrieval are different(of if cues are entirely absent retrieval) there will be some forgetting.
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Encoding specificity principle (2)
Some queues and coded at the time of learning in a meaningful way . for example, the STM may lead you to record all sorts of information about short-term memory such cues are used mnemonic techniques.
Other queues are also encoded at the time of learning, but not in a meaningful week. We will consider two types of non-meaningful queues. .
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Two examples on non-meaningful cues
Context dependent forgetting getting-recall depends on externAl cue (weather or a place )
State dependent forgettingg (eesa depends on internal cue -feeling upset )
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Research on context dependent for getting
Procedure- Duncan godden and Alan Baddley (1975) study, deep sea divers, who work underwater to see if training on land helped or hindered their work underwater . The divers learned a list of words, either underwater or land, and then were asked to recall the words either underwater or land. This created
-Learn on land recall on land
Learn on land recall underwater
-learn underwater recall land
-Learn underwater underwater
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Finding conclusions
In two of these conditions, the environmental context of learning and recall matched, whereas in other two, they did not . accurate recall was 40% lower in the non-matching conditions. They concluded that external queues available and learning or different from the ones available and recall, and this led to retrieval failure.
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Research on state dependent forgetting
Procedure Sara carter and HelenCasaadag (1998) gave antihistamine drugs (for treating hayfever) to their participants. The Aunty Amiens had a mould sedative effect, making the participants slightly drowsy. This creates an internal psychological state from the normal state of being awake and alert. The participants had to learn list of words and pasties of pros and then record information again, creating four conditions.
Learn on drug recall when on drug warn on drug recall when not on drug
Learn not on drug read when on drug
-learn not on drug recall when not on drug
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Findings
In the conditions where there was a mismatch between internal state and learning recall performance on the memory chest with significantly worse, so when the queues are absent, for example, you are drowsy when we’re calling the information, but I’ve been alert learning it then there is more forgetting
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Evaluation real world application
One strength is that retrieval cues can help to overcome some forgetting in everyday situations .
-Although queues may not have been a very strong effect on a forgetting, baddeley they are still worth paying attention to for instance, we have probably had experience of being in one room and thinking’ I must go and get item from another room and then you go to room and then you forget what it was, but then you go back to the room when you remember again.
-We have trouble, remembering is probably worth the effort to recal the environment which you learned it first .
This shows how research can remind us also strategies we use in the real world to improve our pool
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Research support
Another strength is impressive range of research that supports the truthful failure explanation .
The studies by Godden and Baddleey and Carter and Cassandra I’ll just too examples because they show our lack of relevant queues at recourse can lead to context, dependent and state dependent forgetting in every day life.
-Memory researches, Michael eye deck and Mark Keane(2010) argue that retrieval failure is perhaps the main reason for forgetting from LTM.
-This evidence shows the retrieval failure occurs in the real world situation, as well as in the highly controlled condition of the lab.
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Counterpoint
Baddley (1997)
Argues that effects are actually not very strong, especially in every day life . Different context have to be very different indeed before an effect is seen . For example, it would be hard to find an environment as different from land as underwater.(godden and Baddley . In contrast learning something in one room and recalling it is another is unlikely to result in the March guessing because these environments are generally not different enough.
This means that failure due to the lack of contextual cues may not actually explain much every day for forgetting .
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EVALUATION
Recall versus recognition
One limitation is that context affects me depends substantially on the type of memory being tested.
Godden and Baddeley (1980) replicated the underwater experiment, but use the recognition test instead of recall cottage, sprints had to say whether they recognise the word, read to them from a list, instead of retrieving it for themselves . When recognition was tested, there was no context. Dependent effect performance was the same, awful conditions.
This suggest that retrieval explanation for forgetting, because it only applies when a person has to recall information about them recognise it .
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EVALUATION EXTRA
problem with the WSP
There is a lot of evidence that forgetting takes place when there is a mismatch or absence of encoding, and retrieval cues (Tulvings encoding specificity principle )
However, it is possible to establish whether the cue has been encoded or not. The reason it is circular and based on assumptions in experiment if a key did not produce recall, assume it cannot have been encoded. If the queue did produce vehicle, it must’ve been encoded. If the queue did not produce recall, we assume it must’ve been encoded.
CONSIDER : How does this affect the validity of the retrieve failure theory .
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Eyewitness testimony (EWT)
Relative of people to remember the details of events such as accident crimes which they themselves have observed accuracy of UWT can be affected by factors, such as misleading information and anxiety
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When you ask question, the wording of the question may lead you to give us an answer .
This is a particular issue for I witness testimony because police questions may director witness to give up a particular answer .
In the below words, such as smashed or bumped were used to suggest the speed of the car .
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Procedure Elizabeth Miss and John Palmer. Arrange for 45 participants.(students) to watch film clips of Cance and then asked him questions about the accident in the critical question leading question or also called stating information participants or asked to describe how far the class which happened, but half past with the cars going when they hit each other.
-who were there were groups of Waterford and each group was given a different form in the question one group had the verb that contacted bumped collided smashed.
Findings - the main estimate speed is car code for each potent group. The verb contacted resulted immune estimate speed of 31.8 mph for the smashed demeanours 40.5 mph leading question bowww the eyewintess’ recall of an event .
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Why do leading questions affect witness testimony?
The response by explanation suggest that the wording of the question has no rule effect on the participates memories, but just influence how they decide to answer when a participant gets a leading question, using the word, smash. This encourages them to choose the highest speed estimate..
-loft is and Palmer (1974) conducted a second experiment that supported the substitution explanation, which processes that the wording of leading questions changes the participants memory of the film clip. This was showing because participants originally had smashed to a later more likely to report seeing loss(there was none ) than those who heard hit .
-The critical vibe ordered the memory of the incident
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Research on post event discussion
Witnesses to require me some disgusted experiences and then each other, the following experiment, explosive effects of such post event discussion.
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Procedure
Fiona Gabbert eat Al (2003) studied, participants in pairs .
-is Portman watched the video of the same crime but film from different points of view .
-This meant that each pot of sprint elements. From the event the other could not be example, only one of the participants could see the title of a book being carried by young women.
-both participants and discussed what they had said for individually, completing a test of recall.
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Findings
The researchers found that 71% of the participants mistakenly record aspects of the event that they did not seem the video, but picked up in the discussion does correspond and figuring a control group, but there’s no discussion with the person . This was evidence of memory confomrity
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Why does post event discussion affect EWT ?
One explanation is memory contamination . Putting Covid witnesses to a kind, discuss it with each other that I would just testimonies may become alerted or distorted because they can buy information from other witnesses with their own memories.
-Another explanation is, memleh conformity .Gabbert et Al , concluded that witnesses often go along with each other either to win social approval or because they believe the other witnesses alright and they are wrong, unlike with memory contamination that memories unchanged
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EVALUATION
Real-world application
One sort of research into the information that it has important uses in the criminal justice system .
The consequences of inaccurate, E2 can be very serious Loftus (1975) believes that leading questions could have started distorting effect on memory that police officers need to be very careful about how they freeze their questions and interviewing eyewitnesses .
-Psychologist or are to act as expert court trials, explain the limit of AWT two jewelries. This shows that psychologist can help to improve the way the legal system works protect innocent people from 40 convictions based on unreliable EWT .
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Counterpoint
However, the practical applications of UWT may be affected but issues with research for assistance, Loftus and Palmer. Potestas, what is from clips in the lab, a very different from witnessing a real event(less sressful ) . Also Rachael Foster et Al (1994) who what I would remember has important consequences in the real world, but split response to research in the same way (so research participants are less motivated to be accurate .
-this suggest the refer is such as Loftus or pessimistic part of the effects of Miss information UWT, maybe more dependable than many studies suggest .
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Evidence against substitution
One limitation of the substitution explanation is that UWT is more micro for some aspect of an event than others .
For example, Rachael, Sutherland and Harlem’s Jayne (2001) participants, a video clip. When participants were asked, misleading questions, their recourse for central details of the event and for peripheral ones.
-Presumably the central features of these memories are relatively resistant to misleading information.
That the original memories, essentials details survived snd were not distorted . and outcome That is not predicted by the substitution explanation.
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Evidence, challenging memory conformity
Another limitation of the memory, conformity explanation is evidence that post discussion actually authors, EWT.
Elon Skagerberg and Daniel Wright (2008£ show their participants film clips. There were two versions e.g among us hair with dark brown, and one light brown, the other.
Participants to discuss the clips and pairs haven’t seen different versions. They often did not report what they had seen in the clips of what they had heard from their coat witnesses, but a blend of the (e.g c was not light, brown or dark, brown, but medium brown )
-This suggest that the memory contamination by Miss post at discussion, rather than the result of memory conformity.
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Evaluation extra
-Demand characteristics KEYYY Tryna please the researcher
-Live studies have identified soothing information as a course of inaccurate, EWST, partly by being able to control.
But Maria Sadahoza and Michael am lowkey (1989) argue that many answers given by participants in our studies, due to demand characteristics .
-Want to be helpful and not the research so when they are asked the question, they don’t know the answer to.
Consider : how can research as maximise in terms of validity of EWT research ?
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Misleading information
Incorrect information given to an eyewitness usually after the event(hence often called post event information£ it can take many forms such as leading questions and post event discussion between co-witnesses and or other people
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Leading questions
A question which, because of the way it is phrase suggest the certain answer. Through example, was the knife in his left hand, Lisa, supposed to think that that’s where the knife was.
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Post event discussion(PED)
Because when there is more than one witness to an event witnesses may discuss what they have seen with kindnesses with other people. This may influence accuracy, each witnesses recall of the event.
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Anxiety
A state of emotional and physical arousal . The emotions include having words, thoughts and feeling of attention. Physical changes include an increased heart rate and sweatiness anxiety is a normal reaction to stressful situations but can affect the accuracy and detail it is testimony
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Anxiety has strong emotional physical effects, but it is not clear with these effects make eyewitness recall better or worse .
Research supports both possibilities
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Anxiety has a negative effect on recall (weapon focus )
Anxiety, creates physiological arousal in the body which prevents us paying attention to important queues so recall is worse . One approach to study anxiety, and I witness testimony is to look at the effect of the presence of a weapon which creates anxiety.
-This lead to a focus on the weapon and producing a witnesses vehicle for all the details of the event.
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Procedure
Craig Johnson and William, Scott (1976) did research on this. The participants believed that they were taking part of the lab study while seats in awaiting room. Participants in the low anxiety. Condition had to casual conversation in the next room and then saw a man walked past him carrying a pen with grease on his hands.
-Parsons overheard a heated argument, accompanied by the sound of breaking glass . walked out of the room holding a knife covered in blood. This was the high anxiety condition.
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Findings and conclusion
The pot spoons lead, picked out the man from a set of 50 photos, 49% who had seen the man carrying the pen were able to identify him. The corresponding figure for the participant who had seen the man holding the blood covered knife is 33%.
-The tunnel theory of memory argues that people have enhanced memory for central events weapon. Focus as a result of anxiety can have to effect.
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Anxiety, has a positive effect on recall
Witnessing a stressful event cruise, anxiety through physiological arousal within the body to fight or flight response is triggered increasing Alanis. This may improve memory for the event as we become more aware of queues in the situation.
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Procedure
John Yuille and Judith Cutshall (1986) conducted the study of an actual shooting in a gun shop in Vancouver, Canada. The shop oh no sort thief dead. There are 21 witnesses 13 took part in the study. There were interviewed 4 to 5 months after the incident and these interviews were compared with the original police interviews at the time of the shooting accuracy was determined by the number of details supported each account, the witnesses were also asked to write how stressed felt at the time of the instant on a seven point scale and whether they had any emotional problems since the event
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Findings and conclusion
The witnesses were very accurate in their accounts, and there was little change in the amount record or accuracy after five months -those details were less accurate, such as relish of the colour of items and age height weight estimates.
Those participants reported the high levels of stress with most accurate about 88%, compared to 75% for the less stress group
-This suggest the anxiety does not have a detrimental memory. In a real word context. I may even enhance it .
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Explaining the contradictory findings
-According to Robert Yerks and John Dodson(1908) the relationship between emotional arousal and performance like it inverted U.
Kenneth Deffenbacher )1983 reviewed 21 studies of AWT and noted contradictory findings on the effects of anxiety he used the yerkes Dodson law to explain the findings.
-when we witness a crime/accident will become emotionally and physiologically aroused that is experienced anxiety (emotional) as well as physiological change in our body(fight or flight response ) .
-levels of anxiety/arousal produce lower level was a required accuracy and then memory become more accurate as the level anxiety/rouser increases. However, there is an ultimate level of anxiety, which is the point of maximum accuracy if a person (or this) experiences any more arousal, then there recalls suffers drastic decline
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Yerkes -Dodson Law
Inverted youth theories states that performance will increase with stress only to assess important to our decreases drastically.
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EVALUATION
Unusualness, not anxiety
One limitation of the study by Johnston, Scott (facing page) is that it may not have tested anxiety .
-The reason part is for the focus on the weapon, maybe because they conduct an experiment, using scissors, a handgun, a wallet or a raw chicken as a hand, held items in a hairdressing salon video (where scissors would be high and salty, low unusualness). high witness accuracy was significantly poor in the high unusualness conditions (chicken and handgun).
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Unusualness, not anxiety
This suggest that the weapon focus effect is due to unusualness what an anxiety/threat and therefore tells us nothing specifically about the effects of anxiety on EWT.
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Evaluation
Support for negative effects
One strength is evidence supporting the view that anxiety has a negative effect on the accuracy of recall .
The study by Tim Valentine and Jan Mesout (2009) support the research on weapon, focus, finding into effect and recall.
The research is using an objective measure (heart rate) to divide participants into high and low anxiety groups. In this study anxiety clearly disrupted the participants ability to recall details about the actor in the London dungeons labyrinth.
-This suggest a high level anxiety does have a negative effect on the immediate witness recall of a stressful event.
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Support for positive effects
-another strength is evidence showing that anxiety can have positive effects of the activity of recall.
Sven-ale Christiansen and Birgitta Hubinete (1993) interviewed 58 witnesses to actual bank robberies in Sweden . Some of the witnesses were directly involved (E.G bank workers) and some indirectly involved (E.G bystanders). The research was assumed that those directly involved would experience the most anxiety. It was found that recall was more than 75% of our work was witnesses .
-The direct victim (most anxious) were even more accurate.
-These actual crimes confirmed that anxiety does not reduce the accuracy of recall for awarenesses, I may even enhance it.
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Evaluation
Counterpoints
Christiansen and Hubinetre interviewed their participants several months off the event (415 months). The researcher therefore had no control over what happened to their particles in the intervening time (E.G post discussions).
-The effects of anxiety may have been overwhelmed by these other factors and impossible by the time the participants were interviewed.
-Therefore, it is possible that our lack of control over confounding variables very responsible for these findings, invalidating their support. .
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Evaluation extra
Problems with inverted U theory
Theory appears to be a reasonable explanation of the construct findings linking anxiety with both increased and decreased recall .
-On the other hand, ignore the fact that anxiety has many elements-cognitive, behavioural, emotional and physical. Focuses on the last of these (physical arousal) and assumes this is the only aspect to AWT. But the way we might think about the stretch of situation (i.e. cognitive) may also be important.
CONSIDER does this mean that the inverted u explanation is too simplistic ?
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Cognitive interview (CI)
A method of interviewing Irene assist to help them retrieve what I can memories. Jesus, just for main techniques all based on evidence, based psychological knowledge of human memory – report, everything, reinstate the context, reverse the order and change perspective.
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Ronald Fisher and Edward Geiselman (1992) eyewitness testimony could be improved. The police use better techniques when interviewing witnesses.
Fisher, and Geisel man recommended, that thought technique, should be based on psychological insight into how many we worked, and called these techniques collectively, the cognitive interview (CI) to indicate is foundation in cognitive psychology. There are four techniques that are used..
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Technique one
1.report everything
Witnesses are encouraged, include every single detail of the event, even though it may seem irrelevant, or the witness doesn’t feel confident about it. Simply trivial details may be important, and, moreover, they may trigger other important memories..
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Technique two
Two. Reinstate the context.
The witness return to the original crime scene, in their mind and the environment (such as what the weather was like, what they would see) and their emotions (as well, they were happy or bored). This related context dependent forgetting discussed on page 56.
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Technique, three
3.reverse order
Event should be recording a different order from the original sequence, for example, from the final point back to the beginning, or from the middle to the beginning.
-This is down to prevent people reporting their expectation of the event must have happened by the reporting of events. It also prevents dishonesty (it’s harder for people to produce the untrustful account if they have to reverse it).
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Technique four
4. Change perspective.
Witnesses should recall incident from other peoples perspectives. For example, how it would have appeared to other witnesses or to the perpetrator. This again is down to disrupted effect of expectations, and also the effect of schema on recall.
-The skimmer you have for a particular setting (so just going into a shop) generate expert what would have happened and it is the scheme that is recorded rather than what actually happened.
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The enhanced cognitive interview (ECI)
Fisher et Al (1987) developed some additional elements of the CI to both focus on the social dynamics of interaction. For example, the interview needs to know when to establish contact amount of relinquish it. Enhancing I also need to speak such as reducing anxiety, minimising instructions, getting the witness speak slowly and asking open ended questions .
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Evaluation
Support for the effectiveness of the CI
One strength of the cognitive interview is evidence that it works. For example, meta analysis by Günter Köhnkem et sl
(1999) combined data from 55 studies, comparing the CI (and ECI) with a standard police interview.
- The CI gave an average 41% increase in information compared with the standard interview
-Only full studies in the analysis showed no difference between the types of interview.
-This shows that the CR is an effective technique and helping witnesses to record information that is stored in memory (available), but not immediately accessible
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Counterpoint
Köhnkem et Al
.
Also some increase the amount of inactive information recorded by participants. This is a particular issue in the EC, which produced more incorrect details than the CI. May sacrifice quality of AWT (dot dot accuracy) in faithful quantity (model of details).
-This means that police officers should treat iron this evidence from the CIs/ECIs with caution .
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Some elements may be more useful
One limitation of the original CR isn’t that not all of his elements are equally effective or useful.
Rebecca, Milne and day bull (2002) found out each of the full technically used alone produce more information than the standard police interview.
B but they also found that using a combination of report and reinstate the context produced better than any of the other elements or combination of them.
-This police officers suspicions that some aspects of the CI are more useful than others. This cause some doubt on the credibility of the overall cognitive interview.
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Evaluation
The CI is time-consuming
Another limitation is that police officers may be reluctant to use the CI because it takes more time in training and the standard police interview.
For example, more times needed to establish rapport with a witness and allow them to relax. The CI also requires special training and many forces. Do not have the resources to provide more than a few hours (kebbel and Wagstaff 1997).
-This suggest that the complete CI, as exist, is not as realistic method for police officer to use and (as in the point of above) might be better to focus on just a few key elements.
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Evaluation extra
Variation of the CI
Please forces have taken a “pick and mix “approach to the various sicknesses. This means it is hard to compare the effectiveness of different approaches in research studies.
-On the other hand, this quotation, mixed quotation approach is more flexible. It means that individuals can develop their own approach according to what works best for them.
Consider :, is this various issue between police forces/limitation of the CI?
