Cognitive Development Flashcards
1
Q
What is cognitive development
A
A general term describing the development of all mental processes in particular thinking reasoning and our understanding of the world . Cognitivedevelopment continues through t thr lifespan but psychologists have been particularly concerned with how thinking reasoning develops through childhood .
2
Q
What is schema
A
A mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing . They are developed from experience .
3
Q
What is schema
A
A mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing . They are developed from experience .
4
Q
Assimilation
A
A form of learning that takes place when we acquire new information a more advanced understanding of an object person or idea . When new information does not radically change our understanding of thr topic we can asmikiage it into an existing scheme .
5
Q
Accommodation
A
A form of learning that takes place when we acquire new information that changes our understanding of a topic to the extent that we need to form one or more new schema and or radically change existing schema in order to deal with the new understanding.
6
Q
Equilibiration
A
Takes place when we have encounteeed new information and built it into our understanding of atopic , either by assimilating into an understanding of a topic , either by assimilating it into an existing schema of accommodation in. Order to form a new one . Once assimilation or accommodation has taken place everything is again balamcrdf and we have scaled the unpleasant experience of a black balnxenwquilineoum .
7
Q
What is Jean Piaget theory about
A
He produced an influential theory about cognitive development Piaget great contribution to child psychology was to realise that children do not simply know less than adults but they just think differently.
8
Q
Based on the understanding children think differently what did Piaget do
A
Piaget divided childhood into stages each of which represents the development of new ways of eeasoning . Piaget also looked at children’s learning especially two aspects .
9
Q
What are the two aspects Piaget looked at
A
The role of motivation in development
And the question or how knowledge develops .
10
Q
According to Piaget how are children born with
A
Fhildren are born with a small number of schema just enough rfor them to interact with the world and other people . They construct a schema right for, infancy we construct new wsdhemanl one of these is the me schema in whuch all thr chi,did kneoe,due about third,eve jd store ,
11
Q
What happens to schema
A
Cognitive development involved the construction of progressively more detailed schema for people and also for objects phyigsical actions and later more abstract ideas like justice snd morality.
12
Q
Motivation to learn in Piaget theory
A
According to Piaget we are pushed to learn when our existing schema do not allow us to make sense of something new . This leads to the unpleasant sensation of disequilibrium , to escape disequilibrium we have to adapt to the new situation by exploring , and developing our understanding . By doing this ednacjeige equilibrium the preferred mental status .
13
Q
One way learning can take place
Are according to ASSIMILIATION
A
Takes place when we understand a new experience and equilibratw by adding new information to out
R existing schema . For example ,a child in a family with dogs can adapt to thr existence kf different dig veeeds by assimilating thr m into their dig schema .
14
Q
Accommodation
A
Takes place in response to dramatically new experiences . Thr child has to adjust to these by either radically Gina current schemes or forming new ones . So a child with a a pet dog l at first may think of cats as food because they have four legs fur and a tail . But then recognise the existence of a separate category called cats . This accommodation will involve forming a cat schema .
15
Q
Evaluation RESEARCH SUPPORT
A
One strength of Piaget’s theory is fhe existence of evidence for the idnicdual formation of mental representations . Of the world , even when they have similar learning experiences . Christine Howe demonstrated in thus study in which children aged 9x12 years were places in groups of four to investigate and discuss the movement of objects down a slope .
16
Q
Evaluation Reswaexh support (2)
A
Following this activity m all the children were found to have increased their understanding . Crucially through , their understanding has nit become more similar , instead each child had picked up different facts and reached slightly different conclusions . This means that each child has formed an idnicdual mental representation of how 9bjecys move on slopes as Piaget would have expected .
17
Q
Strength of piagets theory is the real world application
A
Piagets idea is that children learn by actively exploring their environment and forming their own ,Engel representation kf the wold has changed classroom teaching . Piagets ideas became popular in the 1960s , the old fashioned classroom in which children sat silently in toes copying from thr board has been replaced by activity - orientsyedc clsssroms in which children actively engage in tasks that allow them to construct their own understandings or thr curriculum .
18
Q
Real world application piagets theory part two
A
Such discovery learning can take different forms . In the early years classroom children may for example get taught but then flip learning ecosystem snd students can read upon thr content forming their own basic mental representations of thr topic prior to the lesson .
Showing how
Isget imepired approaches may facilitator the development of idnicdual mental representations of thr world .
19
Q
Piagets theory real world application counter point
A
Piagets theory has certainly influenced modern practice in teaching snd learning. . However there is no firm evidence showing that children learn better using discovery learning . In a recent review Ard Lazoneer snd Ruth Harmsen (2016) concluded that discovery learning with cosndiersble input from trsbjes is the most effective esy to learn , but it seems that inout from Torsten is not discovery per se , I’d thr crucial element of this efffrcitbrmrdd means check page .
20
Q
Evaluation role of others in learning
A
One limitation of piagets theory is thst he underestimated the role of others in learning . Piaget saw other people as useful to learning in thr sense they are potential sources of information and learning experiences . However , he saw learning itself as individual process .
21
Q
Role of others in learning (2)
A
This contrasts with other theories in which learning is seen as a more social process , supported by more knowledgable others . In particular Lev Vygorsih saw kneodlge as existing first between learner and thr more experienced other snomyl turn in thr mind of the Ladner . This idea is explore ,Orr layer strong evidence to support thr sides that learning enhanced by interaction with othrrdsnd this is perhsbys explained by alternative theories .
22
Q
This means that piagets theory may be an incomplete explanation for learning
A
Bea she it doesn’t put enough emphasis on the role of other people in learning .
23
Q
evaluation extra - rol of motivation
A
piaget suggested that children ( and people of all ages) , acquire new knowledge to escape the unpleasant sensation disequilibrium . Thus the desired to learn is innatelly motivated - we are born with a desire to learn about the world .
-However it has been suggested that piaget overstated of the role motivation in learning .
-ONE POSSIBLE REASON , for this is the fct that piaget sudied an unrepresentative , and highly intelligent sample of children - intiall his own then those ina unvieristy nursery , pherahs these children were more motivated to learn than mso .
24
Q
stages of intellectual development
A
piaget identified , four stages , of intellectual development . Each stage is characterised , by a different level of reasoning ability . Although the exact ages vary from child to child , the key point is all children develop through the same sequence stages .
25
what is object ermenance
the ability to realise that an object still exists ehrn it passes out of the visual field .
-Piaget , believed that this bility , appears at around eight months of age . Prior to this children lose interest in an object , once they cant se it nd presumalya re no longer aware of it exitent .
26
what is conservation
the ability to release , the quantity remains , the same even when the appearance , of an object or group of objects changes . For example , the volume of liquid stays the sme shae when poured between vessels of different shapes .
27
what is egocentrisism
the child tendencey to onl e able to see the world frim their own point of viw . This applies to both phsyical objects - demonstrated in the three mountain taks tasks - and argument sinw hicha child can onlya ppreictate their own perepsceiv .
28
29
What is class inclusion
An advanced classification skill in which we recognise that classes of objects have subsets and are themselves subsets of larger classes . Preopedational children usually struggle to nad in more than one class .
30
Piaget’s stages of intellectual development - sensorimotor stage approximately 0-2 years
According to jean Piaget , a baby early focus is on physical sensations and on developing some basic physician coordination .
Babies learn by trial and error that they can deliberately move their bodies in particular ways snd eventually that they can deliberately,over other objects . The baby also develops an understanding during the first two years that other people are separated objects and acquire some basic language .
31
Sensorimotor stage - what happens to a baby at eig months ht
By around eight months , the baby is capable of understanding object permanence . This is the understanding object permanence . This is the understanding that objects still exist when they are out of sight . Piaget observed babies looking at injected and watched as the objects were removed out of sight .
-Piagetl observed babies looking at onejedts it was out of sight . However , from around eight months m they would continue to look at it . This led Piaget to believe that it was from this age that babies understood that objects continue to exist when they removed from view .
32
What is the prepperagiojal stage (approximately 2-7 years )
By the age of a two a toddler is mobile and can use language but stilll lacks adult reasoning ability . This means that they display some characteristics error in reasoning .
33
Preoperational stage.
How did Piaget demonstrate this
Piaget demonstrates this in a number of situation in his number conservation experiments . Piaget placed two rows , of eight idneircs, counters die by side . Even Karen reasoned that each row of counters has fhe same number ,
34
How did Piaget demonstrate the preoperational stage (2)
However when the counters in one of the rows were pushed closer together , preoperational children struggle to conserve and usually said there were fewer counters in that row .
35
In his liquid conservation procedure.
Piaget found that when two identical containers (A and B) weee placed side by side with the contents at the same height . Most children spotted thst they contained the same volume of liquid . However m if the liquid was poured into a taller thinner vessel younger children typically believed there was more liquid in the taller vessel .
36
In his liquid conservation procedure what did Piaget find
Piaget found his conservation procedure , Piaget found that when two identical containers A and B , were placed side by side with thr contents at the same height , most children spotted that they contained the same volume of liquid . However , if the liquid was. Poured into a falller thinner vessel younger children thought there was in thr taller vessel .
37
Piagets procedure egocentrism
Means to see fhe world only from one okitn of bile was seen in the mountain task in whuch children were shown three mountains , and a doll was placed at the side ornate mountains so it was a different angle from the child .
The child was asked or choose what fhe doll would see from a range of pictures .
PREOPERAITONAL CHILDREN FOUND IT DIFFICULTTO CJOOSE FHE PICTURR RHAY. AGXHED RHE SVENE FROM THEIR IWN POITN OF VIEW
38
Class inclusion in the preoperational, stage
Early in the preoperational stage children , begin to understand classification the idea , that objects fall into categories . So most preoperational children can classify pugs bull terriers and retrievers as dogs . However , Piaget and in helper (1963) found that children under age of seven struggle with they more advanced skill of class including the idea of classification have subsets .
39
Class inclusion (2)
So when they showed 7-8 year old children pictures of five dogs , and two cars m snd asked are there more dogs or animals , cjkdkrne fended kf relekdn rhay rhere were make digs , he jnrelrhffed thus as meaning thst younger chikdren cannot simultaneous see a dog as a member kf the dog class and rhe animal class .
40
Stage or concrete operations (7-11years )
Piaget found that from the age of around seven most children can conserve and perform much better on tasks of egocentrism and class inclusion . However , although children now have better externally verifiable reasoning abilities What l Piaget called operations - these are strictly still struggle to reason about attract ideas and to imagine objects or situations . They cannot see more advanced edabilties in the final stages of lersfikn .
41
Stages of formal operation (11+)
Piaget believed that from about 11 years of age , children become capable of formal reasoning , this means that children become able to focus , and on thr form , of an argument and not be distracted it’d content . Formal reasoning , can be tested by using the pendulum task and also means syllogisms . For example , all yellow cats have two heads . I have a yellow cat challednchwrikie , how many headmaster, it has two , how many head does Charlie have corrects nee Jeff two .
- Piaget found that younger children become distracted by the concern and answered that dates do not relalky she fwk heads , Piaget believed that identify duidken csnnresnsinfirmskku they are capable of reasoning snd appreciate abstract ideas .
42
Evaluation of piagets intellectual development - conservation researchLIMITAFION
One limitation , of piagets conclusions about conservation is that the research was flawed . Children taking part in piagets coxneveation studies may have been influenced by seeing the experimenter, change in the appearance of many counters or liquid .
43
Why would the deal hsed change the appearanc ends ask them if it was fhe same
James to be moved with accident . In one condition they replicated the standard Piaget task . However m in another condition a naughty teddy appeared snd knocked rhe counters closer .
THIS means that children aged 4-6 years could conserve as long as they were not out of but he esy they were questioned . This in turns suggests yhsy Piaget was Seinfeld about the age at whuch conservation alleads .
44
Class inclusion - Another limitation
Is that findings on class inclusion are contradicted by newer research . Robert Siegler and Matija Sverina (2006) show that children weee in fact capable of understanding class inclusion . Siegler and Sverina (2006) showed that children weee in fact capable of understanding class inclusion ,
45
What Siegler and Sverina gave 100 five year olds
From Slovenia ten class inclusion task receiving an explanation of the task after each session . In onendoneiroj they received feedback that there must be more animals than dogs because rhe was nine animals because dogs m bevaysebrgeew weee nine animals but only six old .
46
A different group received feedback that rhere muse be more animals because gives were a subset of animals than dogs because there were nine animals and only six dogs .
A different group received feedback that there be more animals bevayse dogs see s subset of animal ( a rhere explanation kf class inclusion ). The scores across fhe session j,proved more for the latter group suggesting thst the children had acquired a real understanding of clsss inclusion. This mean that chikdren under Sven can in fundedtsjding classmimclsuims - contrsdyntk what Piaget beleuevd so Piaget underestimated what t younger chikdren could do .
47
Egocentrism a further limitation is lack of support for piagets view of egocentrism’s .
Martin Hughes (1975) tested the ability of chikdren to see a situation from two people’s viewpoints using a model with two intersecting walks and three dolls m a busy and two police officers , . Once familaieisss with the task chikdren m as young as 3.5 years weee able to position position the big doll , where once police officer could not see him 90 percentage of the time where rhe who police officers to hide form ,
48
Egocentrism research
Once familiarised with the tasks chikdren as young as 3.5 years weee able to position thr body doll we here once police officer could not see him 90 percentage of the time , when they were row police officers to hide them , thi
49
Egocentrism this means that
When tested with a scenario that makes more sense chikdren see able to devenerer and imagine other perspectives much earlier than Piaget proposed . This again , suggests that Piaget underestimated the abilities of young chikdren and that bus stages are incorrect .
50
Egocentrism research counter point
One issue with all of the limitations explained on thus page , is that they are crutisxm kf the age at whuch a particular cognitive stage is reached , nit a criticism of fhe characteristics of the stage itself . For example Hughes point is that chikdren weee able to defender at a younger age that Piaget had claimed . However , it is still the case that thus abi,tiny is nit present in beer young child,fen and we can see from Hughes reasesdch thst this ability I rocked with age . Therefore thr core principles of piagets stages remain ucmshkknegd but the methods he hsed meant the the timing kf his stages was wrong .
51
Evaluation research - domain general and domain - specific
Piaget believed that intellectual development is a single process , and that all aspects of cognition develop together . So lnagauge , reasjoning , and egocentrism’s all develop pretty much in tandem . Large fork sod cuidlrej , this is indeed fhe case , if there nit when we could not have a school system that teaches a common curriculum to chikdren according to their age .
However m research with autistic chikdren also experience co -occurring learning dusbufkies snd they often face challenges with reasoning , lamayyges and egocentrism . But in other aheusix chikdren who’d I have lesnejf. Duabkrues these skills decleoo as they do in non autistic chickren .
52
Zone kf proximal development
This is the gal between a child’s current level of defleoooment and what they can potentially do with the right help from a ,ore exper other (an adult or more advanced child ).
53
Scaffolding
The rockets kf helping amleejee cross rhe zone kf proximal develop,ent and advance as much as they
Can given their stage of development . Typically the level of help given. In scaffolding declines as a lavender crosses the zone of rpoximal decompose,ment l
54
Lee Vygotsjy
Was a Russian psychologists who was kndoeuxsd by Piaget’s work , they ageeed on many of the basics m of cognitive development . Most importantly they agreed that chikdrenks reasoning abilities develop in a particular sequence and that such abilities are aualaifcaley different at different ages , with a child typically coaoable of particular logic at particular ages .
55
Lee Vygotsjy
Was a Russian psychologists who was kndoeuxsd by Piaget’s work , they ageeed on many of the basics m of cognitive development . Most importantly they agreed that chikdrenks reasoning abilities develop in a particular sequence and that such abilities are aualaifcaley different at different ages , with a child typically coaoable of particular logic at particular ages .
56
Major difference in Vgotsky cognitive development
As a social process , of learning from more edpeeidmed others referred to as experts . Knowledge is first inter neural between rhe more and less expert individual then intramenfal within the mind kf the less expert idnicdual . Vgitsjy also saw language as much more important part of rhe cognitive defelopemnt than Piaget did l
57
Cultural differences in cognitive abiktiesn
If reasoning about kids are acquired from the more experienced individuals , with whom a child has contact , it folows that the child will acquire the reasjionign abilities kf those particular people . This means that they’re may be mcukrurak differences in cognitive devekooent .
With chikdren picking up the mental tools that will be ,our i,protactinium for life within the physical social snd work environments of their culture ., with chikdren picking up yhe mental tools that will be ,our i,portent for life within physical social and work environments of their culture . These mental tools include the hand eye coordination needed to hunt with a bow and arrow and fhe evaualrion skills needed for label sochilgy .
58
The zone of proximal development
Vygotsky put tremendous emphasis on the role of learning thrkgjn interaction wirh others . He identified a gap between a child’s current level kf defelooemt ie. What h they can understand and do alone snd what they can potentially udnerstans after thr interaction with more expert others . Yhe hap osmlmeoms s the some of proximal,so devleope,my .
59
Why was expert sssigance allowed a child
It was allowed to a child to understand as much of a subject or situation as they are capable . Children are still tonsome drejtnlintif by their developmental stage . Bgotsky belibed fhag children develop a more advanced udnerstand of a situation and hence the more advanced reasoning abilities needed to deal with it by learning from others , as opposed to through individual exploration of the world
60
What was critical vgotsky saying
Critically vgotsky was not jus saying that children can learn more facts during social interaction , but also that they acquire more advanced reasoning ahltieis . In fact he belibed that higher mental functions such as formal reasoning could only be acquired through interaction with more advanced others .
61
Scaffolding
The term scaffolding refers to all the kids of help adults and more advance peers give a child to help them to cross the zone of proximal development . Actually Vgotsky did not focus much on this process in his witting and so mskr of what we know about scaffolding is from psychogiwts influenced by his theory . Such as Jerome Bruner and colleagues so this approach is sometimes called the by bots kt Bruner model .
62
Scaffolding part two
David wood Jerome Bruner and Gail Ross noted the particular staggered fhat experts use when scaffolding (as shown below ) . In egenrsl . As a learner crossed the zone of promised dcleokntn , the level of help given in scaffolding declines form level 5 (most jelp) to level 1 (least help( . An adult so MROE likely to use high levels DOD helping strategies when first helping , then to rhadusllf withdraw the level of help as fhe child grasps the task .
63
Evaluation - support for the ZPD
One strength of the Vgotsky theory is reseaech support for the ZPD . There is clear evidence to show that there is indeed a gap between the level of a lore expert other . An example , of such a study comes from Antonio Rossi and Peter Bryant (1998) . They have children aged 4-5 years js task of estimating the number of worj the help of an older children .
64
Evaluation - support for the ZPD
One strength of the Vgotsky theory is reseaech support for the ZPD . There is clear evidence to show that there is indeed a gap between the level of a lore expert other . An example , of such a study comes from Antonio Rossi and Peter Bryant (1998) . They have children aged 4-5 years js task of estimating the number of worj the help of an older children .
65
Support for the ZPD (2)
Mor children working alone failed to give a food signage . In the expert hep condition , the olddd children were observed to offer promos , pointing the younger children in the right direction to work out jot to arrive at thief estimate . Most 4-5 year old receiving this kind of help successfully mastered the task .
THIS SHOWS THAT CHIFLREN DEBELOP additional feasnoning abilities when working with a nro expert isnide is . This in turn suggests that the rlzons of proximal developing is a valid concept
66
Support for scaffolding strength
Another strenfth of avy got sky theory si reseadch support for scaffolding . It has been observed in many studies - such as that of Rossi and Bryant above - that adults and older children peroxide support for younger children learning to master nee tasks .
- but research also shows that the level of hep given by an exper partner declines during the process of learning , a soesxigsx bf DHE lrncille of scaffolding .
67
Support for scaffolding strength
Another strenfth of avy got sky theory si reseadch support for scaffolding . It has been observed in many studies - such as that of Rossi and Bryant above - that adults and older children peroxide support for younger children learning to master nee tasks .
- but research also shows that the level of hep given by an exper partner declines during the process of learning , a soesxigsx bf DHE lrncille of scaffolding .
68
Support for scaffolding sort two
For example David conned and David cross used a long rod yak procedure to follow up 45 children observing them entangled in problem docking taks with the hep of their mothers 14 26 44 and 52 months .
Distinctive changes in hell were observed obe time - the mothers hsd lsss and lsss direct inevetbuon and more hints and prompts as children gained experience . MOTHEDS ALSO INCREASINGLY offered hel when kf was needed rather than xintwntlt .
THIS MEANS FHAT ADULT ASSISTANCE WITH CHIDLRENS LEARNING IS WELL DESCRIBED BT RHE CINEPT FO SCAFFOSKINF
69
Real world application of the cognitive development
A further strenfth is the practical application in education , Vgotskfs ideas have been highly infelhntiak in education in the 21st csnt fuy . The idea fhat children can learn more and faster with appropriate scaffolding has raised expectations of what they should be able to achieve . Scouak ineraxfion in learning through group work , peer tutoring and individual assurance from teachers and teaching assistants has hehe used do scaffold children through their ZPD
70
Real world application part two
There is evidence to suggest that these static jes are effective z holds can Kerr and Jean Pierre verhaege found that 7 years old furrowed by 10 yesss ike in addition to their whole class ravaging progrssssd fidhddd in reading than controls who just had standadx whole clad teaching . A review of the usefulness of teaching assurance ts concluded fhat teaching assitsfanfz are very effective at imrpvomg the rate of learning ibd hilren
MEANINF VGOTSKYS IDeas Havs value in the real world settings .
71
Counterpoint of real world application
Although vgotsky ideas about the role of social interaction ahve had useful applications , these may not be undibersal . Chsrottile Liu and Robert Matthews point out than in China lassss up to 50 children learn very effectively in lecture - style classrooms with very isndie wil interactions with peer or tutors . This should not possible if vgotsky were entirely correct . This means that Vgotsky may ahve overestimated the irornsx did scaffolding in learning
72
EVALUATION EXTRA vgotsky versus Piaget
There is a plenty of evidence to support the idea that as vgotsky said interaction with a more experienced other cna enhance learning we have seen this in studied by conner and cross and can meet and me rhags he above . However if bbg riskg was rihht about the process of inerwvayibe leaning , we would expect all children to pick up very simailad and skills and a smiling menrla desenfanfinom , recall Christian how eofidnejkwow
73
Baillargeone explanatory infant abiltiies
He suggested that young babies had a batter understanding of the physical world than Piaget she suggested . She proposed that the lack of understanding of object permanent could be explained differnet , for example young babies might lack the necessary motto skill to pursue a hidden object or they smh just loose interests s they are easily distracted .
74
What is the violation of expectation research
Baillargeon needed new techniques to investigate her belief in babies superior abilities . One of the techniques she developed is the violation of expectation method .
- bailladgson (2004) , explains VOE as follows in a typical experiment (babies see two test events - an expected event , which is constrained with the expectation examined in the experiment and an unexpected event which bofoslfsd the expectation .
SO IF THE VOW MERJOD IS USED to rest object permanence infants will thocisllt see two two conditions in which objects pass in and out of sight this is illustrated in the study below .
75
Violation of expectation reseaech PROCSDUDD
In an earlt VOE experiment , Baillargeon toegyehr with Marcia Grabber showed 24 babies aged 5-6 months a Tal and short rabbit passing bending a screen with a window in disappearing as they pass behind a scren en - as bots ojt elextstions of object .
76
The zone of proximal development
Expert assistance allows more children to cross the ZPD , and understand
77
Violation of expectation research Findings
The babies looked for an average of 33.07 swxonds at the hendlexted event compared 25.@2 seconds at the expected event . The researchers interpreted this as meaning that the babies were surprised at the expected event . The researchers interpreted this as meaning that the babies were superseded at the unexpected condition . For them to be surprised it follows that they must have known that the talk rabbit should have reappeared at the window . This demon started s good understanding of obiject permanence .
78
Other studies on the violation of expectation research
The Baillaegeon and Graber study described above is an example m of an occlusion study in whuch one object occludes another . I.enit is front of it . VOE experiments have also been hsed to test infant understanding kf contisnmrnt support ,
79
Baillargeons theory of infant physical reasoning
Baillagreon (2001) prooopsoed that humans are born with a physical reasoning sytem , in other words , we are given harswueed with both basic understanding of thr physical world and also the ability to learn more details easily.
_initially , we have primitive awareness kf the physical properties of the world of the world and a,so the ability to learn more details more easily .
80
What is the initial primitive awareness that we have
Primitive awareness of thr physical properties of the world and this becomes more sophisticated as we learn from experience . One aspect of the world of which we have a crude understanding from birth is object persistence , this is roughly the same idea of piagets object permanence - is rhe idea that an object remains in existence snd does t spontaneously alter in structure .
81
Baillaegeons theory of infant physical reasoning (2)
Development proceeds as follows - in the first few weeks of life babies begin to identify event categories . Each event category correspond to one way in which objects interact . For example , occlusion events rake lace when one object blocks the view of another .
82
Baillagreons fhoery of infants physical reasoning (4)
Because a baby is born with a basic understanding of object persistence and quickly learns that one object can block their view of another by the time they are tested in tasks like Baiklargeon and Grabef VOE with talk and short rabbits babies actually have a good understanding that the tall rabbit should appear in the window .
83
Baillagdeons fhoery of infant physical reasoning (5)
The unexpected events capture the baby’s attention because the nature of their pars means they are predisposed to attend to new events that m might allow them to develop their understanding the physical world .
84
Evaluation - validity of violation of expectation
One strength of Baillargeons research is the validity of the VOE method . The VOE method gets around , an jmlrktsnr limitation of Piaget’s research - his assumption that when a baby loses interest in a hidden object they no longer believe it exists .
85
Evaluation - validity of violation of epxecfiafion (2)
Piagets method of studying object permanence cannot distinguish between this and thr alternative possibility that the baby simply became distracted by visual stimuli and therefore stopped looking in the original place l The VOE method ovdrcine x this because dudtrsctuuib eig if not affect thr iutfimr .
86
Evaluation - violation of expectation (3)
The VOE method overcomes this becomes distaxfiijnwoudl not affect the outcome . In the VOE merged rhunf being measures is how long the baby looks at the visual svene - looking away form this scene would not be recorded . THIS MEANS THAT BAILLAEGEONS VOE METHOD AHAS GREATER VALIDITY THAN PIAGETS BECAUSE A CONFOUDNING VARIBALE IS CONTROLLED . THIS ALSO PROVIDES SUPPORT FOR HER THOEORY EDOLWINNG EWLDY CONFITIBE DEVLEOPEMT. .
87
Evaluation- validity of violation of expectation COUNTERPOINT
Piaget pioneered out that acting in accordance with a principe is n9 the same as understating it . (Bremmer 2013) . Even if babies see able to recognise snd vote more attention to unexpected events , this does not necessarily mean that they understand them . Understanding something mesns jr can be thoughts both consciously and applied to reasoning about different aspects of the world .
88
Evaluation - Cournerpoint
This means that even though babies do not appear to respond the unexpected conditions , this may not present a change in their cognition abilities ,
89
Evaluation may not be object permanence
One limitation of Baillaegeons research is the assumption that responses to VOE , is linked to unexpectedness and hence object permanence ,
-Piaget suggested that babies respond to unexpected events but that this does not mean they truly understand it , a further methodological issue is that babies response may not even be to the unexpectedness of fhe event .
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- All VOE shows is that babies find certain events more interesting , We are inferring , a link looking at two different events , may we,, reflect one being more interesting than the other , this may not be beavuse the baby’s eyes it as unexpected it could be interesting for some othe reason .
THUS MSANS THAT THE VIE MERHID MAH NKT BE AN ENTIRE,Y VAKIS WAY TI SRUDY A VERY YIUNG CHUKDS UNDERSTSNDING KF THR LHYSCISL WORLD .
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Evaluation - universal understanding
A further strength of Baillargeons explanation is its ability to explain universal understanding kf thr physical world .
As Susan Hespsis and Kristy van Marle (2012) point out , we all ahve a very good understanding of the phsuical world . As Susan Hespsos , and Kristy van MArle , point out , we all have a very good understsnding of thr basic chstavyedfics of fhe ohsucsl world l regardless of culture snd personal understanding ,
- AS SUSAN HESPOS AND KRISTY VAN marble (2012) point out we all have a very good reason
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Universal understanding (2)
For example everyone understands that if we drop a key ring it will fall to thr ground . This does not require past experience of dropping key or Evan a culture that makes us of keys . This undibersl us standing suggest that a basic udnetssndinf of thr physical world is innate . If it were not innate it would expect significant cultural and idnicdual differences and rehire is no efvidence for them e, thus innate basic understanding of thr physical world suggests Baillaegeons apart is correct .
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Evaluation. Extra credibility
There have been challenges to the idea of the Parasite . Not only is it difficult to determine whether a baby is really responding to the unexpected nature of an event , but berm kf thr baby is , this may not indicate a deal undedtahsinf . However , one thing , that enhances this m credibility of the PRS , is the coherency for example , babies l can use crude patterns to judge distances at early age but experience is needed to make more use of subtle visual cues .
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What is social cognition
Described the mental processes we make use of when engaged in social interaction l for example , we make decisions on how to behave based on our undedtahsinf , of a social situation . Both rhe understanding and fhe decision making sure cognitive processes .
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Perspective Taking
Our ability to appreciate a social situation from the perspective (point of view ) of other people . This cognitive ability underlies much of our normal social interaction l for. Referred , to specifically as social perspective taking , or als called role taking , because we take on rhe role of another and therefore their perspective .
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Selma a levels of perspective taking - Robert selman how is it different from Jean Piaget
Idea of phsucial perspective taking , demonstrated the three mountain task , social perspective taking concerns what someone else is feeling or thinking ie social cognition .
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What did Piaget believe about domain general cognitive development
So he believed that physical and social perspective taking would occur hand in hand . Selman proposed that the development of social perspective taking in separate process , a domain specific approach to explaining cognitive development .
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Perspective taking research was about what ?
Selman looked at changes that occurred , with age , in chikdren responses to scenarios in which they were asked to take rhe roles of difffeent people in a social situation .
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Procedure on the perspective taking research procedure
30 bigs and 30 girls took part in the survey , 20 4 year ikes 20 five year olds and 20 six year old . All were individually given a task designed to measure perspective l taking ability . This involved k asking them how each person felt in various scenarios l
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Perspective taking research procedure (2)
One scenario featured a child called Holly who has promised her father she will no longer climb trees , but who then come across her friend whose kittens is struck up in a tree .
The task is describe and explain , how each person , (Holly , her friend and her father ) , would feel if Holly did or did not climb t he tree to rescue fhe kitten
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Perspective taking research findings
A number of distinct levels of perspective taking were identified . Selman found that the level of perspeicve taking correlated with age , suggesting a clear developmental sequence ,
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Selman a stage of development overview
Selman used his perspective taking research to formulate a stage theory of social perspective taking - he actually used the term role taking , how taking the role of another person allows a child to se sifuarions from others perspective ,
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Selman stages of development STAGE 0 (3-6 years ) EGOCENTRIC
A child in this stage cannot reliably distinguish between their own emotions nad those of others . They van generally identify emotional others but do not understand what social behaviours might have caused them .
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Stages of development STAGE 1 (6-8 years ) social informational SELMAMS
A child can tell the difference between their own point of view ,a bd that of others , but they can usually focus on one of only these per specified ,
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SELMANS STAGE 3 (10-12 years. )mutual
Children are now able to look at situations from their own and another’s point of view at the same time .
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Stage 4 (12 years +)
Social and conventional Yonung people become able to see that sometimes understanding others viewpoint is not enough to allow people to reach agreement . This is why social conventions are needed to keep order , Assoman. Eleibed that development thriugh these stages is based on both maturity snd experience .
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Later development to selmans theory INTERPERSONAL UNDERSTANDING
This is what selman measured in his earlier perspective taking research . If we can take difference roles that we can understand social situations .
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Later developments in selmans theory - interpersonal negotiation strategies
As well as undedtahsinf what others think in social situations , we also have to develop skills in how to respond to them . We therefore develops social skills such as asssering our position and managing confli cf l
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Later developments to selmans theory £ awareness of personal meaning kf relationship
As well as understanding social situations , and how to manage them , social development also ability to reflect on social behaviour in the context of different relationships , . Thus a violent gang member may ahve an advanced social understsnding and did skxuak skills , but chooses a simple approach to conflict ( violence ) because of their role in thr gang.
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Evaluation - research support for stages
One strength of selmans stage is evidence that perspective taking become more advanced with age . Selman tested 60 children ( boys and girls ages 4-6 years old ) , using svensdjos like thst involving Holly and the kitten . There was significant positive correlations between age and the ability to take different perspectives .
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Research support for stages (2)
This cross sectional research has since been supported by the findings , of longitudinal studies (aGuruchwrru snd Selman ), such longitudinal studies have followed chikdren over a period of time , and recorded improvements in their perspective - taking aniktig.
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Research support (3)research
Longitudinal studies have good validity m bevayse they cknrirk for individual differences whereas cross sexrinak studies don’t . This mesns thst there is solid sullirt from different kinds kf frdrsdhc for sekman’s most basic idea that perspective taking improved wifh age .
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Research support fo perspective taking
a further strength of Selman's stages in support for the importance of perspective - taking in healthy social development .
A key element , of Selman's approach , of perspective taking in development . This is supported by an observational study of child-parent interaction in toyyshops and supeprmarkets . Moniek Buijzen and Patti Valkenburg (2008) , observed interactions inclduing those in which parens refues to buyt higns their hioldrne wanted .
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Research support for perspective taking (2)
The researchers noted an coercive , behaviour in the children ( truing to force parents to buy them things , which is an example of unhealthy social behaviour . The study found negative correlations between coercive behaviour and both age and perspective-taking ability .
-THIS SUGGESTS taht there is a relationshhip between perspective taking abilities and healthhy social behaviour .
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research support for perspective taking COUNTERPOINT
Other lines of research have not supported the lins between perspective - taking and social development . For example , Luciano Gassr and Monika Keler , assessed perspective taking in bullies victim , and non participants . They found , that bullies dispalyed no difficulties in perspecitve takign . This sugested tht perspective taking may not be a key element in healthys ocial developemnt .
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Too cogntiive evalaution of selamns leels of perspective talking
one limitation of Selman;s stages is the focus on cogntiive factors alone . Perspective taking is a cognitive ability . However , there is far more to children;s social development than their increasin cogntiive abilties .
-byf cousing , on the cogntiive elemtn of develpment , Selman;s approch failts to take into account the full rnage of other fctor that impact on a childs sociad evelopemnt .
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ALTHOUGH SOME OF THE SODIUM IONS ARE KEPT CLSOED (1)
Other intermal , factors include the development of empathy of emotional self regulation . There are also important external factors inclduing parenting style fmily climate and opporuntiines to elarn from peer interaction . This means that Selman's approach to explaining social development is too narow
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EVALUATION EXTRA - NUTURE OR NATURE
There is some evidence for cultural diffferences , in perspective ,t aking ability . SHALI QU AND BOAZ KEYSR compared american and amtched chinese chidlren nd found tht the chinese children were signcinlty more advanced .
-THIS SUGGESTS , that cultural infleuncs might be improtant . HOwever , Selman elieved , that his stages of perspective - tkaing wee based priamril on congitiv emturit nd hence niversal .
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theory of mind
our personal understadning , of what other people are thinking and feeling . It is something called mind rreading .
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what it is autism
this is broad term for wide range of featus . theyf ace hcallenegs in social ineraction and communciationa nd repetiiv eor restricted behviours .
-As A SPECTRUM CONDIION , AURISM AFFECTS PEOPLES IN DIFFERENT WAYS AND CO OCCURS IWTH LENIRNG DIABILLITY IN SOME
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What is sally - Anne study
Uses the Sally Anne takss to assess theory of mind . To understand the stor participants have o identify that Sally will look for a mrbel in the wrong plac ebecause she does not know ANNE HAS MOED IT . AUTISIIC CHIDLEEN AND VERY YOUNG NON AUTISITC CHILREND FIND THIS CHALLENGIN G.
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WHAT ARE THE different methods used to study theory of mind
different methods are used to study TOM AT different points in development . The emergence of ismple TOM can be seen in toddlers eans by inteitional reasoning , reearch . A more sophisticated , llevel of TOM can be assessed in 3- 4 yers old using als ebeleif takss . In older CHILDRENAN ADULTS ADVANCE TOM , hs been esed , with the eyes task , in which participants , judge complex emotions wiht minimal informaiton facial expression .
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intentional reasoning in toddlers (1)
in one sutdy andrew meltzoff ,, provided convincing evidence to show tht toddler aged bout 18 motnhs , have an understanding , of adults intentions hwen crrying out simple actions .
Children of 18 motnhs obsrved adults place beads into a jar . In the experimental conditions hte adults apper to struggle with this and some beads fell otuside the jar .
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intentional reasoning in toddlers (2)
-In the control condition , the adults placed the beads successfully in the jar . In both conditions the toddlers did successuflly place th ebead in the jar , they dropped no mroe beads in the experimenl conditons . THIS SUGGESTS they were imitatin wh the adults intended to do rather than wht adults acc did . This kind of research shows that very young chidlren hae a simpel tom .
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false beeilf takss
were developed in order to test whether children can udnerstand that people can beliece somethign tha tis notr tur e.
maxi nd maxis mother
nd sally anne studyy
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what did sally anne study PROCEDURE
The sally anne tsk was given indicdiully to 20 autisitci chidlren 27 non auticic chidlren nd 14 with down sydnrome .
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findigs of sallya nne study
85 percent of children int he control groups idenitfied were sally wold look for he rmarble , howeever , onl four of the autisitc chidlren 10 percent ,w ere able to anse this . Bron Cohen et al argued , tht this difference showed tht autisims invoeld TOM , defici tht this amy in fct be compelte explanation for autisms .
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testing older children and adults (1) may autisitc
many autisitc people who do not hae learning didsabilties hve challenges with empathy social communicaiton and imaginaiton , but thier lagages development may be realrivley unaffected . Studies of odler autisic hildren and adults without a lerning diasability shoed that htis group could suced on false beelif taks . This was a blow to the idea that autisms can be explaiend by ToM deficits .
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testing older children and adult (2)
-HOwever , bARON- Cohen and clleagues deveoped a more challenging tsk to asses , tom doslecents and adults . They eye taakss invovles rreading , compex emotions in pcture sor faces in pciture or faces ju showing a small area arond the yes . baron cohen et sl found that many autisic adults wihtout a lanrign diability stuggled ith the eye task . THIS SUPPORT THE IDEA THT TOMD EFICIT MIGHT BE A CUAS EOF AUTISM .
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evaluation - false beliefs tasks
one limitTION OF tOm RESEARCH , has been the reliance on false belief tasks to test the theory . Hundreds of studies have made use of fals ebeleif like taks SALLY - ANNE TSK , however , false belief tasks may have serious problems of validity (Bloom and German 2000) .
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evaluation - false beliefs (2)
One reason for this is that belief tasks require other cognitive , abiliies such as visual memory - failure , on a false belief , task may thus be due to a deficit in memory rather thn ToM .
- ALSO , SOME CHILDREN who can engage successfully in pretend play , which require somes TM ability , noentheless , find false beleifs tasks difficult . THIS EMANS FALS EBELIEFS MA NOT BE RELLY MESSURE ToM and herefore TOM lacks key research eidec e.
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EVALUATION - theory of mind versus perspective taking
A further limittion , is that research techniques fail to disinguish ToM from perpsectie - taking .
-Perspectivetaking and ToM , are related but are actually different cogntiive abilties . It can be very sure we are measuring one and not the other . For example , in intentional , reasoning tasks a chid might be viualsing the bead tasks from the aul perspective rathe THAN EXPRESSING A CONSCIOUS UNDERSTANDING OF THEI RINTEION .
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EVALUTION - theory of mind veruss perspective taking
In the sally anne taks a child might be swithcing perspecitvebeween SALLY AND ANNE . This means that with excepion , of the task designed to mesure ToM may actually measure perspective taking
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theory of the mind - real world appliction
one strength of the thoery of the mind research is its application to understanding autisms .
-The tests used to assess tom , (false belief takss ) , are challenging , for some autistic , ossibly because they may not fully understand what other people are thinking . This in turns offers an explaantion fo hwy some autisitc poeple may find some social ineraction difficult 0 it is hrd to interact with soemone if you feel dont geta sens eof what they re thinking and feelign .
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theory of the mind real world pplicaiton (2)
In contrast , if it is often assumed that most neurotpical people cna pick up another persons thoguhts and feelifhts with little effort . This means TOM , has real world relevance .
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real world application counterpoint
nevertheelss , ToM , does not provide a complete explanation for autisms . Not every autisitc , people experiences , ToM , issues (not lways understanding what someone else is thinkign ) , nor ae a TOM problems , limtied to autsitic people (YAHER FLUSBERG 2007( , .
-ALSO A LACK OF TOM cannot explain , thecogntivie strengths of autisic , people . This emans tht there mus be other facod that ar invovled in autism and htr association between autisms nd to is not as trong as firs tbeleid .
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EVALUATION EXTRA - NATURE AND NURTURE - Theory of the mind NATURE AND NURTURE
Jjosef perner suggests , tht TOM is an innate ability which develops longside other cognitive abilties , largely as a result of mturity . This is in line with Jean paget's viw that progressively mroe abstrct , thinking develops as w ege odler nd hte brian matures . CROSS CULTURAL STUDIES , FOUND A SIMILAR , pattern of development of TOM bilties in dfiferent cultures .
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EVALUATION EXTRA - NATURE AND NURTURE - Theory of the mind NATURE AND NURTURE (2)
In contrast jaen wilde astington , sugest a more vygosian explanation , . She suggests more vgotskian explantion . She suggetss tom develos as a consquence of our interactions with others ,a nd gradully the conept of OM is tnerlied . This study by DAVID liui noted tha tTOM abitlied did not necesarilyd evelo a the same age in different cultures jut int he same sequence .
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the mirror neuron system
it consists of special brain cells called mirror neurons distributed , in several areas in the brain . Mirror neurons are unique because they fire both in response to personal action and in response to action on the part of others .
-These special neurons may be involved in social cognition , allowing us to interpret emotion and intention in others.
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how were mirror neurons discovered
like many great scientific discoveries , researchers came across mirror neurons quite by accident . Giacomo , Rizzolatti , were studying electrical activity in a monkey's motor cortex (the part of the brain controlling movement ) ,when one of the researchers reached , for cortex the part of the brain controlling movement , when one of the researchers , reached for his lunch in the view of the monkey ,t he monkeys motor cortex became activated exactly int he same way as if the monkey itself reached for the food .
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what did further investigations on mirror neurons discover
in fact , the same brain cells that fired when the monkey reached itslef or watched someone else reach . The researcher called these cells mirror neurons because the neurons mirror motor activity of another individual .
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mirror neurons and intention - Vittorio Gallese and Goldman
they suggested mirror neurons respond not just to observed actions , but to intentions behind behaviour . Rather than the common sense view that we interpret people's actions with reference to our memory , Gallese and Goldman , suggested we simulate , others actions in our motor system and experience their intentions using our mirror neurons .
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mirror neurons and perspective taking
it has also been suggested that mirror neurons are important in other social cognitive functions .
-FOR EXAMPLE , theory of the mind , and the ability to take others perspectives . If mirror neurons fire in response to others actions and intentions , this may give us a neural mechanisms for experiencing and hence understanding other peoples perspectives and emotional states .
-JUSST AS WE CAN simulate , intention by making judgements based ono ur own reflected motor response , this same information may allow us to interpret how others are thinking and feeling .
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mirror neurons and human evolution - vilayanur Ramachandran (2011)
Has suggested that mirror neurons are so important that they have effectively shaped human evolution . The uniquely complex social interactions we have as humans require a brain system that facilitates an understanding of intention , emotion and perspectives . Without these cognitive abilities we could not live in large groups with complex social roles and rules that characterise human culture .
-RAMACHANDRAN - suggests that mirror neurons are absolutely key to understanding the way humans have developed as social species .
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mirror neurons and autisms - strong evidence
a major source of evidence concerning mirror neurons and perspective taking comes from the study of mirror neurons in autistic children .
-Some features of autisms are associated with all the social - cognitive abilities linked to mirror neurons in autistic children . Some features of autism are associated with all the social cognitive abelites , linked to mirror neurons .
-If autistic children can be shown to have a dysfunctional mirror neuron system this may go a long way to explaining autism .
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mirror neurons and autisms - strong evidence - Ramachandran and Oberman
they have proposed the broken mirror theory of autism . This is the idea that neurological deficits that include dysfunction int he mirror neuron system prevent a developing child imitating and understanding social behaviour in others .
-This manifests itself in infancy , when children later diagnosed as autistic , typically mimic adult behaviour less than others .
-Later , problems with the mirror neuron system , leads to challenges in social communicational s children do not fully develop the abilities to read intention and emotion of others .
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