Question 1

Chapter 8

Accepted Answer

1. Cerebrum – higher mental function - Left/right hemisphere 2. Cerebral cortex – 5 lobes - Frontal/ Parietal lobes – central sulcus -Precentral gyrus (motor cortex)/ -Postcentral gyrus (somatosensory control) -temporal lobe (auditory center) -occipital lobe (vision) -Insula (olfactory, gustatory, auditory, pain information) 3. Basal nuclei -control of voluntary movement Claustrum, corpus stratum (caudate, putamen, globus pallidus) 4. Cerebral lateralization (dominance) Broca’s area (motor aspects of speech) Wernicke’s area (Understanding of words) 5. Limbic system – responsible for emotional drives (amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus) 6. Hypothalamus (diencephalon): hunger/satiety, body temperature, sleep and wakefulness, endocrine system 7. Midbrain- motor coordination (corpora quadrigemina – superior colliculi/ inferior colliculi Cerebral peduncle, red nucleus/substantia nigra 8. Cerebellum- coordinate movement 9. Medulla oblongata – breathing and cardiovascular response 10. Reticular activating system – activation and inhibition of neural pathway 11. Spinal cord: gray matter/ white matter 12. Reflex arc 13. Hindbrain – pons – two respiratory control centers cerebellum- coordinate movement medulla oblongata – breathing and cardiovascular response

Question 2

Chapter 9

Accepted Answer

1. Table 9.1 ~Somatic motor Autonomic motor~ One neuron Two sets of neuron Preganglionic neuron Postganglionic neuron (unmyelinated) Involuntary control 2. ~Sympathetic division Parasympathetic division~ Fight or flight Rest and digest Thoracic lumbar Craniosacral Sympathetic ganglia Terminal ganglia (paravertebral ganglia) Collateral ganglia (prevertebral ganglia) Rami communicantes Neurotransmitter Preganglionic – Ach Preganglionic- Ach Postganglionic- NE Postganglionic- Ach (Ach – sweat glands, skeletal muscle blood vessels) Function Digestive function ↓ ↑ Heart rate ↑ ↓ Pupil diameter ↑ ↓ 3. Agonist and antagonist 4. dual innervation (usually antagonistic) 5. Organs without dual innervation (adrenal medulla, arrector pili muscle, sweat glands, most blood vessels)

Question 3

Chapter 10

Accepted Answer

1. Transduce 2. Taste & Smell: Chemoreceptor Smell (G-protein coupled receptor, F. 10.11) 3. Tastes: salty, sour, sweet, bitter, and umami 4. Otolith organs (Utricle, Saccule: macula) Semicircular canals (Ampulla: crista ampullaris) 5. Sound wave: tympanic membrane → ossicles (malleus → incus → stapes) → oval window → Cochlea [Scala vestibuli → Scala media (cochlear duct) → Scala tympani] → round window 6. spiral organ (organ of Corti): sensory fibers, inner hair cell, tectorial membrane, basilar membrane 7. perilymph/ endolymph 8. How to distinguish low/ high frequency sounds? 9. Light path: Cornea → pupil → lens → retina 10. Iris circular muscle: constriction (parasympathetic ANS) Radial muscle: dilation (sympathetic ANS) 11. lens accommodation Ciliary muscle: ~ Zonular fibers ~ lens ~ vision Contraction: ~ Relaxed ~ Thicken ~ Close-up Relaxation: ~ Taut ~ Flatten ~ Distance 13. emmetropia, presbyopia, myopia, hyperopia, astigmatism 14. retina (photoreceptor → bipolar cell → ganglion cell) 15. Dark Current Hyperpolarized Photoreceptors Dark: Depolarized ~ Hyperpolarized (release inhibitory neurotransmitter → ~ inhibit bipolar cells → ganglion cell inactive → no signal to brain) Light: Hyperpolarized (no inhibitory neurotransmitter → no inhibition of bipolar cells → ganglion cell active → signal to brain) (signal transduction pathway) Dark: Dark current Light: cis-retinal → trans-retinal → G protein (transducin) → phosphodiesterase (cGMP → GMP) → Na+ channel (closed) → photoreceptor (hyperpolarized) → no neurotransmitter to bipolar cells

Question 4

Chapter 12

Accepted Answer

1. Connective tissue components in skeletal muscles: Epimysium-perimysium-endomysium 2. Motor units: motor neuron + muscle fibers 3. Sarcolemma, sarcoplasm, sarcoplasmic reticulum, transverse tubule 4. Muscle fiber, myofibrils 5. Sarcomere structure: thick and thin filaments I band, A band, H band, Z discs 6. Sliding filament theory 7. Thick filament – myosin Thin filament – actin - Tropomyosin - Troponin Titin filament 8. Cross bridge cycle 9. Role of Ca2+ during excitation-contraction coupling 10. Transverse tubule 11. Twitch, summation, tetanus

Question 5

Chapter 13

Accepted Answer

1. Blood: plasma: albumin, globulins, fibrinogen Formed elements: RBC, WBC, platelets 2. Heart structure: 4 chambers 4 valves: atrioventricular valves (AV) and semilunar valves (SL) 3. Pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation 4. SA node – AV node – bundle of His – right & left bundle branches – Purkinje fibers 5. Pacemaker cells (SA node): depolarize spontaneously (HCN channel) – voltage gated Ca2+ channel – voltage-gated K+ channel 6. Myocardial action potential: Voltage gated Na+ channel – Ca2+ channel (membrane potential plateau) – K+ channel 7. Long refractory period 8. Blood vessels: arteries – arterioles – capillaries -venules -veins 9. Tunica interna, tunica media, tunica externa 10. Functions of lymphatic system 11. Cardiac cycle: systole, diastole

Question 6

Chapter 15

Accepted Answer

1. Innate immunity (non-specific) Adaptive immunity (specific) 2. Pathogen-associate molecular patterns (PAMPs) and toll-like receptors 3. Complement system: activated by antibodies or certain glycoproteins of bacteria a. C1-C9 b. Produce membrane attack complex (create a large pore) c. Chemotaxis d. Opsonization (promote phagocytosis) e. Stimulate mast cells 4. Local inflammation a. Bacteria enter in the skin b. Mast cells/macrophage – attract phagocytic cells c. Redness, warmth, swelling, pain, pus 5. Phagocytosis – neutrophil, monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells a. Extravasation (diapedesis) b. Chemotaxis c. Lysosome 6. Interferons – produced by virus-infected cells/ antiviral molecule 7. Antigens – illicit an immune response 8. Hematopoietic stem cells – lymphocytes T (thymus): cell -mediated immunity -- CD4 helper T cells -- CD8 cytotoxic T cells -- CD4/CD25 Regulatory T cells B (bone marrow) cell: humoral immunity -- memory B cells -- plasma cell (produce antibody) 9. Primary lymphoid organs and secondary lymphoid organs 10. Five classes of antibodies and characteristics: IgG, IgM, IgA, IgE, IgD 11. Major histocompatibility complex molecules (MHC) MHC 1 (all nucleated cells): activate cytotoxic T cells (CD8) MHC2 (antigen presenting cells): activate helper T cells (CD4)

Question 7

Chapter 16

Accepted Answer

1. Structure of respiratory system Alveoli: ~ 300 million, 760 ft2 Extremely thin layer between alveolar cell and capillary endothelial cells 2. Trachea → primary bronchi → secondary bronchi → tertiary bronchi → terminal bronchioles → respiratory bronchioles → alveolar sacs 3. Pressure differences (Table 16.1) Intrapulmonary pressure Intrapleural pressure Intrapulmonary pressure 4. Inspiration: lung volume ↑, intrapulmonary pressure ↓ Expiration: lung volume ↓, intrapulmonary pressure ↑ 5. Primary muscle of ventilation: diaphragm 6. Regulation of the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen pH ↓ = affinity ↓ Temperature ↑ = affinity ↓ 2,3 DPG ↑ = affinity ↓ → Reduce affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen (deliver more oxygen to tissues)

Question 8

Chapter 17

Accepted Answer

1. Kidney functions: blood volume, waste, electrolytes, pH 2. Kidney structure Cortex Medulla – Pyramids and columns (pyramid → minor calyx → major calyx → renal pelvis) → ureter → urinary bladder → urethra 3. Nephron: tubules + associated small blood vessels Glomerular capsule (Bowman’s capsule) → proximal convoluted tubule → loop of Henle (descending limb and ascending limb) 4. Afferent arterioles → glomerulus → efferent arterioles 5. Renal plasma clearance: Filtration → reabsorption → secretion (Bowman’s capsule) (proximal convoluted tubule/Descending loop of Henle) (nephron tubule) respectively

Question 9

Chapter 18

Accepted Answer

1. Functions of digestive tract Deglutition, mastication, peristalsis, digestion, absorption 2. Gastrointestinal tract (alimentary canal) Oral cavity → pharynx → esophagus → stomach → small intestines → large intestines 3. Bolus/ chyme 4. Stomach - gastric pits mucus (mucus neck cell) HCl, intrinsic factor (parietal cell) Pepsinogen (chief cell) 5. Gastric rugae 6. Small intestine - plicae circulares Villi Microvilli - Brush border enzymes (disaccharidase, peptidase, phosphatase) 7. Structure of liver lobules – bile canaliculi → bile ductile → bile duct Hepatic portal vein/ Hepatic artery → sinusoids → central vein 8. Functions of liver Bile production Detoxification Metabolism of carbohydrate, triglycerides, cholesterol Production of plasma proteins 9. Composition of pancreatic juice: bicarbonate + pancreatic enzymes 10. Digestive enzymes Carbohydrate: amylase, brush border enzymes Protein: pepsin, trypsin, chymotrypsin, elastase, carboxypeptidase, brush border enzyme Lipid: lipase

Question 10

Chapter 20

Accepted Answer

1. Testes Seminiferous tubules → sperm Interstitial tissue (Leydig cells) → testosterone 2. Seminiferous tubules → rete testis → efferent ductules → epididymis → ductus deferens → ejaculatory duct → urethra 3. Seminal vesicle/prostate gland add fluid to sperm → semen 4. Ovary Uterine tubes (fallopian tube) Uterus Endometrium Myometrium Perimetrium Cervix 5. Ovarian cycle: Follicular phase (primary follicles → secondary follicles → mature (Graafian) follicles) (LH) → ovulation (LH) Luteal phase (corpus luteum) 6. Menstrual cycle (cycle of endometrium) Proliferative phase (ovary – follicular phase) Secretory phase (ovary – luteal phase) Menstrual phase

Question 11

Chapter 11

Accepted Answer

1. Hormones, paracrine, and autocrine 2. Hormones and endocrine glands “chart” 3. Negative feed back regulation: TRH → TSH → TH 4. Prostaglandins – function/ cyclooxygenase (COX) inhibitors- NSAIDs

Question 12

What are the 2 parts of homeostasis?

Accepted Answer

a. Negative feedback loop b. Positive feedback loop

Question 13

What regulation did we cover in chapter 1?

Accepted Answer

Neuronal and Endocrine

Question 14

Chapter 1: what are the levels of organization? (smallest to largest)

Accepted Answer

Cell – Tissue – Organ – System – Organism

Question 15

Chapter 1: what are the primary tissues? (theres like 20)

Accepted Answer

~Muscle~
-Skeletal
-Cardiac
-Smooth
~Nervous~
~Epithelial~
-Simple
-Stratified
-Squamous
-Cuboidal
-Columnar
~Connective ~
-Connective tissue proper
-loose (adipose)
-dense -regular
-irregular
-Cartilage (chondrocytes)
~Bone (osteocytes)~
~Blood~

All chapter summaries :D Flashcards

WIP on individual cards, all info is there tho. Review HW as well