Anatomy Flashcards
(284 cards)
1
Q
Anatomy
A
Study of structures and relationships among them
2
Q
6 Levels of Body Organization
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1) Chemical
2) Cellular
3) Tissue
4) Organ
5) Organ system
6) Organism
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Q
4 Types of tissues
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Muscular
Epitheleal
Connective
Nervous
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6 Life Processes
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Metabolism Responsiveness to environment Movement Growth Differentiation (unspecialized cells become specialized) Reproduction
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Q
Prone
A
Body lying face down
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Supine
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Body lying face up
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6 Main Body Regions
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Head Neck Trunk Upper limb Lower limb Groin
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Planes
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Imaginary flat surfaces that run through the body
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Q
Sagittal
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Divides body into left and right sides
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Frontal/ Coronal
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Divides body into front and back
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Transverse
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Divides body into upper and lower
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Section
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Cut of the body along one of the planes
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Cervical
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Front of neck
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Acromial
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Shoulder
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Inguinal
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Groin
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Patellar
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Knee
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Sternal
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Sternum
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Cranial
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Top of head
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Dorsum
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Top of hand/ foot
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Tarsal
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Ankle
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Crural
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Calf
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Femoral
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Upper leg
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Carpal
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Wrist
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Coxal
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Hip
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Antibrachial
Forearm
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Cubital
Elbow
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Thoracic
Ribs
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Brachial
Upper Arm
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Nuchal
Back of neck
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Scapular
Shoulder Blades
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Interscapular
Shoulders next to spine
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Vertebral
Spinal Column
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Lumbar
Lower back
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Sacral
Butt crack
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Gluteal
Butt cheek
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Palmar
Palm of hand
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Perineal
Pubic area
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Popiteal
Back of knee
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Calcaneal
Heel
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Superior
Towards head
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Inferior
Towards feet
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Anterior
Front of body
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Posterior
Back of body
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Medial
Closer to midline
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Lateral
Further from midline
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Proximal
Nearer to trunk
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Distal
Nearer to hands/ feet
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Dorsal
Back
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Ventral
Front
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Body Cavities
Spaces that house internal organs
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Cranial Cavity
Formed by cranial bones and contains brain
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Vertebral cavity
Formed by vertebral column- spinal cord, nerves
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Meninges
Three layers of protective tissue and a shock absorbing fluid surround brain and spinal cord
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Thoracic cavity
Ribs, chest muscle, sternum, thoracic vertebrae
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3 subsections of the thoracic cavity
Pleural cavity
Pericardial Cavity
Mediastinum
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Pleural cavity
Space between pleura surrounding lung
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Pleura
Serous membrane on lung
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Serous membrane
Slippery, double layered membrane associated with internal body cavities
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Pericardial Cavity
Space between peracardium that surrounds heart
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Mediastinum
Central portion of thoracic cavity between lungs- heart, thymus, esophagus, trachea, blood vessels
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Abdominopelvic Cavity
Abdomen and pelvic cavities
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Abdominal Cavity
Stomach, spleen, liver, gall bladder, intestines
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Pelvic Cavity
Bladder, reproductive system
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Viscera
Organs inside abdominopelvic and thoracic cavities
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Membrane
Thin, pliable tissue that covers, lines, partitions and connects structures
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2 layers of the serous membrane
Parietal layer- lines body cavities
| Visceral layer- covers and adheres to viscera
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What is inbetween the layers of the serous membrane
Serous cavity containing serous fluid
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Pericardium
Serous membrane of heart
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Peritoneum
Serous membrane of the abdominal cavity
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Fascia
Connective tissues bind muscles together (grouping) and help seperate body compartments
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3 parts of cells
Plasma membrane
cytoplasm
Nucleus
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Nervous Tissue
Detects changes and responds by generating nerve action potentials to activate muscular contractions and glandular secretions
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Epithelial Tissue
Covers body surface, lines cavities, forms glands
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Connective Tissue
Protects and supports body organs. Binds organs, stores energy, provide immunity
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Muscle Tissue
Cells for contraction and generation of force- generation of heat
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3 Functions of epithelial tissue
Selective barrier for substances going in or out of body
Release cell products onto surfaces
Protects against environmental influence
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Apical Surface
Faces body surface
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Lateral Surface
Face adjacent cells
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Basal surface
Opposite of apical
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Basement Membrane
Extracellular layer
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2 components of the basement membrane
Basal lamina- closer to epithelial cells
| Reticular lamina- close to underlying connective tissue
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How does epithelial and connective tissues exchange substances?
Diffusion
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What kind of areas have epithelial tissue?
Areas repeatedly subject to stress and injury-- high rate of cell division
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2 types of epithelial tissue
Covering/ lining epithelium
| Glandular epithelium
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What is the naming system for epithelial cells
2 names-- 1) layering
| 2) shape
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3 types of epithelial cell layering
Simple
Stratified
Psuedostratified
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Psuedostratified
Simple because all cells rest on the basement membrane but appears stratified because the nuclei are on different levels
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4 epithelial cell shapes
Squamous
Cuboidal
Columnar
Transitional
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Squamous
Flat and thin. Rapid passage of substances
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Cell shapes for secretion and absorbtion processes
Cuboidal
| Columnar
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Transitional Cell Shape
Change back and forth from squamous to cuboidal-- for stretching organs like bladder
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2 types of glandular epithelium
Endocrine glands
| Exocrine glands
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Endocrine Glands
Secretions diffuse into bloodstream without going through a duct (hormones)
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Exocrine Glands
Secrete products into ducts which release onto epithelial surfaces
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5 types of cell junctions
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Tight junction
Adherens Junction
Desmosomes
Hemidesmosomes
Gap junction
```
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Tight Junction
Fuse together and seal passage way between cells
| - inhibits passage of substances (stomach lining)
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Adherens Junction
Adhesion belts help epithelial tissue resist seperation
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Desmosomes
Intermediate filaments weld together to prevent seperation under tension
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Hemidesmosomes
Dont link adjacent cells, they anchor cells to the basement membrane
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Gap Junction
Fluid filled tunnels connect neighbouring cells
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Innervate
Supply an organ with nerves
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2 components of connective tissue
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Cells
Extracellular matrix (fibers)
```
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2 components of extracellular matrix
Protein fibers
| Ground substance- material between cells and fibers
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6 types of connective tissue cells
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Fibroblasts
macrophages
Plasma cells
Mast Cells
Adipocytes
White blood cells
```
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Fibroblasts
Large, flat cells with branching processes. Most numerous
| Secrete components for ground substance
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Macrophages
Develop from monocytes-- Engulf bacteria and foreign substances through phagocytosis
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Plasma Cells
Develop from lymphnotes-- secrete antibodies
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Mast Cells
Abundant along connective tissue blood vessels-- Produce histamine in response to injury or infection
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Adipocytes
Store fats
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White blood cells
Under certain conditions migrate from blood to connective tissues
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Ground substance
Component of connective tissue between cells and fibers
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What is the consistency of ground substance
Can be fluid, gelatinous or calcified depending on circumstances
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What does ground substance do?
binds cells, store water, exchange substances between blood and cells
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Glycosaminoglycans
Polysaccharides and proteins in ground substance
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Proteoglycans
Proteins trap water making ground substance more jelly like
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Hyaluronic Acid
Viscous substance binds cells together and lubricates joints
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Hylauronidase
Breaks up hyaluronic acid so white blood cells can move through connective tissue to infection site
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Chonodroitin Sulfate
Support and adhesiveness in cartilage ,bone and blood vessels
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Adhesion Proteins
Link components of ground substance together and to cell surfaces
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Fibronectin
Binds collagen fibers and ground substance together
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Fibers
Embedded in extracellular matrix between cells to strengthen and support tissues
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Collagen fibers
Resist tension but are not stiff so provide flexibility
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What is the arrangement of collagen fibers?
Parallel bundles
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What is the most abundant protein in the body?
Collagen
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Elastic Fibers
Smaller than collagen. Branch together to form a fibrous network
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What are the 3 types of connective tissue fibers?
Collagen
Elastic
Reticular
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What is the structure of elastic fibers?
Protein (elastin) surrounded by glycoprotein (fibrillin)
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Where are elastic fibers found?
skin, blood vessels, lungs
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Reticular fibers
Collagen arranged in fine bundles with a coating of glycoprotein
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What produced reticular fibers?
fibroblasts
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Stroma
Supporting framework of soft organs
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Loose connective tissue
Loosely arranged between cells
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3 types of loose connective tissues
Adipose
Areolar
Reticular
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Dense connective tissue
Contains more fibers but considerably fewer cells
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3 types of dense connectie tissue
Regular
Irregular
Elastic
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Dense Regular connective tissue
Follow a particular pathway and are oriented in the same way
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Dense irregular connective tissue
No particular orientation so can withstand tension in many different directions
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Elastic connective tissue
Elastic fibers with fibroblasts in between
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Cartilage
Dense network of collagen and elastic fibers embedded in a gel like component of ground substance
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What is cartilages tensile strength due to?
Collagen Fibers
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What type of connective tissue does not have a blood supply?
Cartilage
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Why does cartilage not heal well from injury?
It does not have a blood supply
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Chondrocytes
Occur singly or in groups in the lacunae of extracellular matrix
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Perichondrium
Covering of dense irregular connective tissue surrounding cartilage
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Ephiphyseal Plates
Cartilage growth plates allow bones to grow in length
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3 types of cartilage
Hyaline
Fibrocartilage
Elastic
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Hyaline cartilage
Bluish white shiny substance that supports and reinforces structures
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What is the weakest type of cartilage?
Hyaline
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Fibrocartilage
Chondrocytes scattered in thick collagen fiber bundles in extracellular matrix
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What cartilage type does not have perichondrium?
Fibrocartilage
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What is the strongest type of cartilage?
Fibrocartilage
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Elastic Cartilage
Chondrocytes in a threadlike network of elastic fibers
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Bone tissue
Abundant extracellular matrix that surrounds widely scattered cells
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2 types of bone tissue
Compact
| Spongy
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Osteon
Basic unit of compact bone
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4 components of an osteon
Lamellae
Lacunae
Canaliculi
Central/ Haversian Canal
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Lamellae
Rings of extracellular matrix consisting of mineral salts and collagen fibers
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What is responsible for the compactness and strength of compact bone?
Lamellae
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Lacunae
Small spaces between lamellae that contain osteocytes
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Osteocytes
Mature bone cells that inhabit lacunae within hardened mix
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Canaliculi
Project from lacunae- Network of canals containing osteocyte processes
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Function of canaliculi
Provide routes for nutrients to reach osteocytes
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Central/ Haversian Canal
Contains blood vessels and nerves
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Osteoblasts
Immature bone cells that secrete collagen into matrix where calcium precipitates forming a hardened mix
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Spongy bone
Lacks osteons
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Trabeculae
Slender columns of bone containing lamellae, osteocytes, lacunae, canaliculi
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What are spaces between trabeculae filled with?
Red bone marrow
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Blood
Liquid extracellular matrix
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3 formed elements in blood plasma
White blood cells
Red blood cells
Platelets
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Lymph
Extracellular fluid that flows in lymphatic vessels
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2 types of membranes
Epithelial
| Synovial
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Epithelial Membrane
Epithelial layer with underlying connective tissue
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Synovial Membrane
Connective tissue with no epithelium, lines joints
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3 types of epithelial membranes
Mucous
Serous
Cutaneous
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Mucous membrane
Lines body cavity opening to exterior
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Serous Membrane
Lines cavitities that dont open to to exterior
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Cutaneous Membrane
Skin
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Synoviocytes
Discontinuous layer of cells closer to the synovial cavity
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Muscular Tissue
Elongated cells called monocytes use ATP to generate force
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3 types of muscular tissue
Skeletal
Cardiac
Smooth
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Skeletal Muscle
Movement and support
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Cardiac Muscle
Creates blood pressure
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Smooth muscle
Involuntary processes
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2 types of cells in nerous tissue
Neurons
| Neuroglia
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Neurons
Conduct electrical impulses through body
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Neuroglia
Supporting cells that nourish, insulate and protect neurons
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Integumentary system
Skin, hair, oil, sweat glands, sensory receptors
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3 functions of the integumentary system
Constant body temperature
Protection
Sensory Information
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Epidermis
Thin, outer layer of avascular epithelial tissue
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Dermis
Deeper, thicker layer of vascular connective tissue
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Subcutaneous/ Hypodermis
Layer of areolar and adipose tissue make a layer of fat under skin
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4 types of cells in epidermis
Keratinocytes
Melanocytes
Langerhans Cells
Merkel Cells
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Keratinocytes
Produce keratin and lamellar granules that protect skin and underlying tissues
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Melanocytes
Produce melanin which is taken up by keratinocytes to protect from UV rays
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Langerhans Cells
Macrophages that engulf foreign substances in epidermis
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Merkel Cells
Deepest layer of epidermis has cells that intake sensory and tactile stimulation
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5 layers of epidermis
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Basale
Spinosum
Granulosum
Lucidum
Corneum
```
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Keratinization
Cells are continuously growing in epidermis and are pushed up through layers where they accumulate more keratin
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2 regions of the dermis layer
Papillary
| Reticular
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3 skin pigments
Melanin
Hemoglobin
Carotene
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Melanin
Colour determinant for skin and hair. Yellow- red, brown- black
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Hemoglobin
Oxygen carrying pigment in red blood cells accounts for red skin coulours
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Carotene
Yellow- orange pigment
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Hair
Dead keratinized cells secreted from living hair follicle
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3 types of skin glands
Sebaceous
Sudoriferous
Ceruminous
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Sebaceous Glands
Oil glands secrete sebum which protects and conditions skin
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Sudoriferous Glands
Sweat glands secrete by exocytosis
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Ceruminous Glands
Produce ear wax
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Nails
Plates of hard, dead keratinized cells
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6 functions of the skeletal system
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Support
Protection
Assistance in movement
Mineral storage and release
Blood cell production
Triglyceride Storage
```
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Long Bones
Consist of a diaphysis and variable number of epiphyses
| Compact and spongy bone.
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Short bones
Cube shaped, spongy bone with a thin layer of compact bone
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Flat bones
Two parallel compact bones enclosing a layer of spongy bone
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Irregular bones
Complex structures with variable amounts of compact and spongy bone
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Sesamoid Bones
Bones lying within tendons for protection
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Diaphysis
Shaft of bone
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Epiphyses
Proximal and distal ends of bone
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Epiphyseal Plate
Layer of hyaline cartilage allows bone to grow in length
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Epiphyseal Line
Growth plat is replaced and creates a bony structure
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Articular Cartilage
Hyaline cartilage layer on the end of bone where joints form
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Periosteum
Connective tissue sheath covering bone surface where there is no articular cartilage
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Medullary Cavity
Hollow cavity in shaft containing yellow bone marrow and blood vessels
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What minimizes bone weight?
Medullary cavity
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Endosteum
Membrane lining medullary cavity
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Tendons
Attach bone to muscle
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Ligaments
Attach bone to bone
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Depressions and openings
Grooves or holes where nerves and blood vessels pass through bone
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Processes (bone)`
Projections on bone that form joints or attachment points for connective tissue
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Fissure
Narrow slit between adjacent bone parts where blood vessels or nerves pass
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Foramen
Opening through which blood vessels, nerves and ligaments pass
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Fossa
Shallow depression
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Sulcus
Furrow that accomodates a blood vessel, nerve or tendon
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Meatus
Tubelike opening
234
3 Processes that form joints
Condyle
Facet
Head
235
Condyle
Large, round protuberance with smooth articular surface at the end of bone
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Facet
Smooth, slightly concave/ convex articular surface
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Head
Rounded articular projection supported on neck of the bone
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Crest
Prominent ridge or elongated projection
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Epicondyle
Roughened projection above a condyle
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Line
Long, narrow ridge
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Spinous Process
Sharp, slender projection
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Trochanter
Very large projection
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Tubercle
Variable sized, rounded projection
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Tuberosity
Variable sized projection with rough, bumpy surface
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Hydroxyapatite
Calcium phosphate and calcium hydroxide
246
What deposits minerals into the framework of bone?
Collagen
247
Calcification
Crystalization of minerals so tissue hardens
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What initiates calcification?
Osteoblasts
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What causes flexibility in bones?
Collagen
250
4 types of bone tissue in cells?
Osteoprogenitor Cells
Osteoblasts
Osteocytes
Osteoclasts
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Osteoprogenitor Cells
Unspecialized bone stem cells that are the only cells to undergo division
252
Osteoblasts
Bone building cells that develop into osteocytes
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Osteocytes
Mature bone cells that maintain bone metabolism
254
Osteoclasts
Derived from monocytes- responsible for reabsorbtion and bone maintenance
255
Reabsorbtion
Breakdown of extracellular matrix for development/ maintenance/ repair
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Concentric Lamellae
Circular plates of mineralized extracellular matrix surrounding a small network of blood vessels and nerves in the central canal
257
Interstital Lamellae
Fragments of old osteons that were partially destroyed during rebuilding or growth
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Perforating Canals
Blood vessels and nerves from periosteum penetrate compact bone
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Spongy Bone Tissue
Does not contain osteons-- has trabeculae
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Trabeculae
Lamellae arranged in irregular pattern of thin columns
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Spaces between trabeculae are filled with...
Red or yellow bone marrow
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Periosteal Arteries
Enter through diaphysis in perferating canala and supply periosteum
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Nurtient Artery
In diaphysis, enters compact bone at oblique angle through nutrient foramen
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Metaphyseal arteries
Enter metaphyses of long bone and supply red bone marrow and bone tissue
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Epiphyseal arteries
Enter epiphysis of long bone and supply bone marrow nd tissue
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Open/ Compound fracture
Broken ends of bones protrude through skin
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Comminuted fracture
Bone is broken into fragments
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Greenstick
Occurs in children, bone bends and only partially breaks
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Impacted Fracture
One end of fractured bone is forcefully driven into interior of another
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Pott Fracture
Fracture of distal end of fibula- serious injury to tibial articulation
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Colles Fracture
Fracture of distal end of radius where fragment is displaced posteriorly
272
3 phases of bone repair
Reactive
Reparative
Bone Remodelling
273
Reactive Phase
Blood vessels are broken and blood clots around the fracture
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Fracture Hematoma
Blood clot at fracture site
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Reparative Phase
Formation of fibrocartilaginous callus and bony callus
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Fibrocartillaginous Callus
Mass of repair tissue made of collagen fibers and cartilage
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Bony Callus
Soft callus is converted into spongy bone
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Bone Remodelling
Fragments are reabsorbed by osteoclasts and compact bone replaces spongy bone
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Demineralization
Loss of bone mass due to loss of mineral deposits in extracellular matrix
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2 factors in bone brittleness
Demineralization
| Reduction of collagen fiber synthesis
281
5 Bone Growth factors
```
Minerals
Vitamins
Hormones
Exercise
Aging
```
282
2 Minerals involved in bone growth
Calcium
| Phosphorous
283
5 Vitamins involved in bone growth
```
A
C
D
K
B12
```
284
2 hormones involved in bone growth
Insulin growth factors
| Thyroid hormone
