Animal Structure And Function Flashcards
1
Q
Animal Systems
A
- Digestive
- Respiratory
- Circulatory
- Immune
- Excretory
- Nervous
- Musculoskeletal
- Endocrine
- Reproductive
- Morphogenesis/Development
2
Q
Intracellular Digestion
A
Digestion occurring within food vacuoles
3
Q
Extracellular Digestion
A
Digestion occurring within a gastrovascular cavity
4
Q
Gut Regions
A
- Mouth
- Esophagus
- Crop (Storage Organ in some species)
- Stomach
- Intestine
- Rectum
- Anus
5
Q
Gut Regions Unique to Humans
A
- Small Intestine
- Large Intestine
- Accessory Organs
6
Q
Oral Cavity
A
The mouth
7
Q
Mastication/Mechanical Digestion
A
The chewing, softening, and breaking up of food
8
Q
Salivary Glands
A
Produces saliva
9
Q
Saliva
A
Is filled with the enzyme salivary amylase and is found in the mouth
10
Q
Salivary Amylase
A
Enzyme that begins the chemical breakdown of starch into maltose
11
Q
Bolus
A
A ball of chewed up food
12
Q
Peristalsis
A
Wavelike motion that moves food through the esophagus
13
Q
Gastric Juices
A
Contain digestive enzymes and hydrochloric acid (HCl)
14
Q
Pepsin
A
Breaks down proteins into smaller peptides
15
Q
Chyme
A
Partially digested food that enters the small intestine
16
Q
Pyloric Sphincter
A
A passage that chyme takes to get into the small intestine
17
Q
Pancreas
A
Secretes trypsin, chymotrypsin, pancreatic lipase, and pancreatic amylase into the small intestine
18
Q
Trypsin and Chymotrypsin
A
Break down proteins into dipeptides
19
Q
Pancreatic Lipase
A
Breaks down lipids into fatty acids and gylcerol
20
Q
Pancreatic Amylase
A
Breaks down starch into disaccharides
21
Q
Pancreatic Duct
A
The passage enzymes take to enter the small intestine
22
Q
Bile
A
An emulsifier made in the liver and stored in the gall bladder
23
Q
Emulsifier
A
A substance that mechanically breaks up fats into smaller fat droplets
24
Q
Villi and Microvilli
A
Folds that increase the surface area of the small intestine and absorb food particles
25
Lacteals
Lymph vessels in the villi that absorb fatty acids
26
Gastrin
An enzyme that stimulates stomach cells to produce gastric juices
27
Secretin
An enzyme that stimulates the pancreas to produce bicarbonate and digestive enzymes
28
Cholecystokinin
An enzyme that stimulates the secretion of pancreatic enzymes and the release of bile
29
Vitamin K
An essential vitamin that is provided by bacteria during digestion
30
Feces
Leftover digested food that moves into the rectum and out the anus
31
Trachae
Tubes that allow for passage of air in certain organisms
32
Spiracles
Tubes that air enters into
33
Lungs and Gills
Respiratory structures in most vertebrates
34
Pharynx
The throat
35
Larynx
The voice box
36
Epiglottis
Covers the trachea and prevents food from going down the wrong pipe
37
Left Bronchus and Right Bronchus
Branches that service the lungs
38
Bronchiole
Smaller tubes found in throughout the lungs
39
Alveolus
Sacs at the end of each bronchiole that enable the lungs to have a high surface area for gas exchange
40
Capillary
Hold carbon dioxide and accept oxygen from the alveolus and then send carbon dioxide to the alveolus and branch off from arterioles
41
Hemoglobin
Transports 97% of the oxygen in your blood while the other 3% is dissolved in the plasma
42
Plasma
Fluid of the blood
43
Bicarbonate Ions (H2CO3)
Form when CO2 combines with water in red blood cells
44
Inspiration
Taking in oxygen by increasing the volume of your lungs, allowing air to rush in
45
Expiration
Letting carbon dioxide out of your lungs by breathing out
46
Chemoreceptors
Control an organism's respiratory rate
47
Diaphragm
Muscle between ribs and lungs that contract to push rib cage outwards and allow air to enter the lungs
48
Open Circulatory System
Blood is carried by open ended blood vessels that spill blood into the body cavity
49
Sinuses
Internal cavities
50
Closed Circulatory System
Blood flows continuously through a network of blood vessels
51
Chambers of the Heart
- Right Atrium
- Right Ventricle
- Left Atrium
- Left Ventricle
52
Systemic Circulation
Blood leaves the left ventricle and tours the body before returning to the heart
53
Aortic Semilunar Valve
Passage that blood takes to leave the heart and into the aorta
54
Aorta
Largest artery in the body
55
Arterioles
Smaller vessels that branch off of arteries
56
Deoxygenated
When blood is depleted of oxygen
57
Venules
Passages that direct blood into the veins
58
Veins
Carry blood towards the heart
59
Superior Vena Cave and Inferior Vena Cava
Allow blood to enter the heart
60
Right Atrioventricular Valve (Tricuspid)
Allows blood to travel from the right atrium to the right ventricle
61
Pulmonary Circulation
Blood leaving the heart to go towards the lungs
62
Pulmonary Semilunar Valve
Passage that blood takes to leave the right ventricle
63
Pulmonary Artery
Blood enters this after leaving the right ventricle
64
Oxygenated
Blood is filled with blood within the lungs
65
Pulmonary Veins
Direct blood back towards the heart and the left atrium of the heart
66
Left Atrioventricular Valve (Bicuspid/Mitral Valve)
Passage that allows blood to enter the left ventricle of the heart
67
Thermoregulation
The maintenance of a fairly stable body temperature regardless of external conditions
68
Endotherms
Animals that regulate their internal temperature
69
Counter Current Exchange
Arteries leaving with warm blood help heat the cold blood heading back to the heart through the veins
70
Ectotherms
Animals that gain and lose heat based on their current environmental conditions
71
Sinoatrial (SA) Node
The tissue where the rhythmic beating of the heart begins
72
Atrioventricular (AV) Node
The impulse from the SA Node is carried to this node
73
Bundle of His and Purkinje Fibers
The action potential from the AV Node is carried to both of these and causes your heart to contract
74
Systole
The part of the beating cycle in which contraction occurs
75
Diastole
The part of the beating cycle in which relaxation occurs
76
Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)
Oxygen carrying cells within the body
77
White Blood Cells (Leukocytes)
Fight infection against foreign organisms
78
Platelets
Fragments that cause blood to clot
79
Bone Marrow
Where all blood cells are made and is found in the center of the bone
80
Blood Groups
- A
- B
- AB
- O
81
Antibodies
An immune substance that will bind and destroy foreign bodies
82
Rh Factors
Antigens found on blood cells (Rh+ has Rh Factors)
83
Lymphatic System
A network of vessels that conduct lymph throughout the body
84
Lymph
A clear, watery fluid formed from interstitial fluid
85
Lymph Node
A mass of tissue found along the course of a lymph vessel that contain lymphocytes
86
Lymphocytes
Multiply rapidly when they come into contact with an antigen or foreign substance and assist in fighting off infection
87
Antigen
Foreign substance recognized by the immune system
88
Immune System
A system of specialized cells that help fight off foreign organisms and prevent infection
89
Phagocytes
Engulf antigens
90
Complement Proteins
Lyse the cell wall of the antigen
91
Interferons
Inhibit viral replication and activate surrounding cells that have antiviral actions
92
Inflammatory Response
A series of events in response to antigen invasion or physical injury
93
Pathogen
A disease causing agent
94
Cell-Mediated Immunity
Immunity that comes from cells being able to recognize and destroy foreign bodies
95
Major Histocompatability Complex (MHC)
Markers that distinguish between self and foreign cells
96
Memory T and B Cells
Recognize pathogens they have encountered before and attack them
97
Helper T Cells
Activate B Cells and other T-Cells in response to infected cells
98
Cytotoxic T Cells
Recognize and kill infected cells
99
AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome)
Interferes with the body's immune system by destroying all helper T Cells
100
Nitrogenous Wastes
Wastes that contain nitrogen
101
Ammonia (NH3)
A harmful substance that is a byproduct of protein breakdown
102
Uric Acid and Urea
Animals convert ammonia to these substances to easily get rid of them from their bodies
103
Nephridia
Excretory organ found within earthworms
104
Malpighian Tubes
Excretory organ found in arthropods
105
Kidney
Organ that regulates excretion
106
Nephrons
The functional units that make up the kidney
107
Regions of a Nephron
- Bowman's Capsule
- Proximal Convoluted Tubule
- Loop of Henle
- Distal Convoluted Tubule
- Collecting Duct
108
Renal Cortex
Outer section of the kidney that contains the Bowman's Capsule and the Proximal Convoluted Tubules
109
Renal Medulla
Inner section of the kidney that contains the Loop of Henle and Distal Convoluted Tubules
110
Bowman's Capsule
Site where blood enters the nephron
111
Renal Artery
Leads to the kidney and branches into arterioles and then capillaries
112
Glomerulus
A ball of capillaries that sit in the Bowman's Capsule
113
Filtrate
Plasma that is forced from the capillaries and into the Bowman's Capsule
114
Urine
Is produced as the filtrate moves through the distal convoluted tubules and into the collecting duct
115
Ureters
Passages that carry urine to the bladder
116
Bladder
Stores urine
117
Urethra
Excretes urine from the bladder
118
Production of Urine
- Filtration
- Reabsorption
- Secretion
119
Filtration
Blood is filtered as it passes through glomerulus to the Bowman's Capsule
120
Reabsorption
As the filtrate moves through the proximal convoluted tubule, some materials are reabsorbed (Small ions and solutes)
121
Peritubular Capillary
Surround proximal convoluted tubule and absorbs small ions and solutes
122
Secretion
As the filtrate moves through the convoluted tubules, some substances (H+, K, NH3) are secreted from the capillaries into the tubules
123
Vasopressin/Antidiuretic Hormone
Allows water to be reabsorbed from the collecting duct and helps your body retain water by concentrating urine
124
Aldosterone
Responsible for regulating sodium reabsorption at the distal convoluted tubule
125
Skin
Excretory organ that gets rid of excess salt and water from the body
126
Layers of the Skin
- Epidermis
- Dermis
- Subcutaneous Tissue (Hyperdermis)
127
Stratum Corneum
Layer of dead cells that covers the epidermis
128
Nerve Net
Network of nerve cells found in simple organisms such as a hydra
129
Ganglia
Clumps of nerve cells found in semi-complex organisms
130
Neurons
Specialized cells found in complex organisms
131
Parts of a Neuron
- Cell Body
- Dendrite
- Axon
132
Cell Body
Contains the nucleus and organelles for the neuron
133
Dendrites
Short extensions of the cell body that receive stimuli
134
Axon
A long slender extension that transmits an impulse from the cell body to a neuron or organ
135
Sensory Neurons
Receive impulses from the environment and bring them to the body
136
Motor/Effector Neuron
Transmits impulses to muscles or glands to produce a response
137
Interneurons
The links between sensory and motor neurons
138
Polarized
When the neuron membrane inside the cell has a negative membrane potential
139
Threshold
The minimum amount of stimulus a neuron needs to respond
140
Action Potential
A change in the membrane potential that produces a nerve impulse
141
All-or-None Response
Action potential will either occur or not occur, but will never stop mid fire
142
Depolarization
The inner membrane potential of the neuron becomes more positive due to the rush of Na+ ions
143
Repolarization
The inner membrane potential of the neuron returns to its original state by pumping in K+ ions and out Na+ ions
144
Sodium-Potassium Pump
Protein that helps polarize and depolarize the membrane in order to pass along a signal
145
Refractory Period
The period of time after an action potential has occurred
146
Neurotransmitter
Carries a stimulus to another neuron and continues the pathway
147
Axon Bulb
End of the axon
148
Synapse
The space in between two neurons
149
Acetlycholine
A neurotransmitter that can stimulate muscles to contract or inhibit postsynaptic potential
150
Acetylcholinesterase
The enzyme that breaks down extra acetlycholine that is left in the synaptic cleft
151
Norepinepherine
Neurotransmitter that is released between neurons within the CNS
152
GABA
Secreted in the CNS and acts as an inhibitor
153
Schwann Cells
Supporting cells that wrap around the axon and produce myelin sheathes
154
Myelin Sheath
Insulates the axon
155
Nodes of Ranvier
Exposed regions of the axon in between the myelin sheathes
156
Saltatory Conduction
Impulse that jumps from node to node
157
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Includes the neurons in the brain and spinal cord
158
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Includes the neurons throughout the body
159
Somatic Nervous System (SNS)
Controls voluntary activities
160
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
Controls involuntary activities
161
Sympathetic Nervous System
Controls the fight or flight response
162
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Calms the organism down after the adrenaline is no longer needed
163
Cerebrum
Controls all voluntary activities; receives and interprets sensory information; largest part of the human brain
164
Cerebellum
Coordinates muscle activity and refinement of movement
165
Hypothalamus
Regulates homeostasis and secretes hormones; regulates pituitary gland
166
Medulla
Controls involuntary actions such as breathing, swallowing, heartbeat, and respiration
167
Pons
Connects parts of the brain with one another and contains respiratory center
168
Midbrain
Center for visual and auditory reflexes
169
Thalamus
Main sensory relay center for conducting information between the spinal cord and cerebrum
170
Cerebral Cortex
The outer gray matter of the cerebrym
171
Corpus Callosum
A thick band of nerve fibers of the white matter that allow the left and right hemispheres of the cerebrum to communicate
172
Exoskeleton
A hard covering or shell on the outside of an organism
173
Endoskeleton
Entire skeletal system is in the inside of the body
174
Cartilage
Found during embryonic development and in the ears and nose, lacks nerves and blood vessels
175
Bone
Replaces cartilage and contains nerves and blood vessels
176
Substances That Make Up Bone
- Collagen
| - Calcium Salts
177
Osteoblasts
Bone-building cells
178
Osteoclasts
Bone-breaking cells
179
Ligaments
Tough connective tissues that hold joints together
180
Joints
Hold bones together
181
Tendons
Attach muscles to bones
182
Skeletal Muscle
Control voluntary movements
183
Striations
Stripes found in the skeletal muscle
184
Muscle Bundles
Make up muscles
185
Muscle Fascicles
Subdivisions of muscle bundles
186
Muscle Fiber Cells
Found within each muscle fascicle
187
Myofibrils
Found within each muscle fiber
188
Sacromeres
Contractile units found in myofibrils
189
Main Protein Filaments in Muscles
- Actin
| - Myosin
190
Sarcoplamsic Reticulum
Releases calcium ions into the muscle cell
191
Smooth Muscles
Are less organized than skeletal muscles and are found throughout the body
192
Cardiac Muscles
Specific muscles found in the heart
193
Intercalate Discs
Hold cardiac muscles together
194
Endocrine Gland
Produces hormones
195
Ecdysone
Hormone that promotes molting and the metamorphosis of a larva to a butterfly
196
Juvinile Hormone
Causes larvae to retain their characteristics
197
Pheromones
Help animals communicate in the same species and attract the opposite sex
198
Target Cells
Cells the hormone will affect
199
Negative Feedback System
Hormones will signal the endocrine gland to halt production if there is an excess
200
Pituitary Gland
Releases hormones that reach other glands and stimulate them to release their own hormones
201
Anterior Pituitary Hormones
- Growth Hormone (GH)
- Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
- Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
- Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
- Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
- Prolactin
202
Growth Hormone (GH)
Stimulates growth throughout the body, targeting bones and muscles
203
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
Stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids and minearalocorticoids
204
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
Stimulates the thyroid to secrete thyroxine
205
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
Stimulates the follicle to grow in females, and spermatogenesis in males
206
Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
Causes the release of the ovum during the menstrual cycle in females and testosterone in males
207
Prolactin
Stimulates the mammary glands to produce milk
208
Posterior Pituitary Hormones
- Antidiuretic Hormone/Vasopressin
| - Oxytocin
209
Oxytocin
Stimulates contractions of uterus and ducts of mammary glands
210
Pancreas Hormones
- Glucagon
| - Insulin
211
Islets of Langerhans
Site where insulin and glucagon are produced
212
Glucagon
Stimulates the liver to release glucose when blood sugar levels are low
213
Insulin
Stimulates the liver to take in glucose when blood sugar levels are high
214
Glucocorticoids
Target the liver and promote the release of glucose
215
Mineralocorticoids
Target the kidney and promote the retention of water
216
Epinepherine
Initiates the flight or fight response
217
Adrenal Cortex Hormones
- Glucocorticoids
| - Mineralocorticoids
218
Adrenal Medulla Hormones
- Epinepherine
| - Norepinepherine
219
Thyroid Gland
Target of TSH and found in the neck
220
Thyroxine
Responsible for regulating the metabolic rate in body tissues
221
Hyperthyroidism
Occurs in individuals who regularly release too much thyroxine
222
Hypothyroidism
Occurs in individuals who release too little thyroxine
223
Calcitonin
Decreases blood concentration of calcium by concentrating it into bones
224
Parathyroid
Four pea shaped organs on the thyroid and secrete parathyroid hormone
225
Parathyroid Hormone
Increases blood calcium levels by releasing calcium from bones
226
Bone Remodeling
The process of breaking down or building bones to release or store calcium
227
Sex Hormones
- Testosterone
- Estrogen
- Progesterone
228
Estrogen and Progesterone
Regulate the menstrual cycle
229
Testosterone
Promotes spermatogenesis
230
Cyclic Amp (cAMP)
Acts as a secondary messenger and triggers various enzymes in various target cells
231
Ova
Female gametes
232
Follicular Phase
Period in which the follicle grows
233
Luteal Surge
Release of LH
234
Ovulation
Release of the follicle from the ovary
235
Fallopian Tube/Oviduct
Carries the ovum to the uterus
236
Endometrium
Walls of the uterus
237
Corpus Luteum
Ruptured follicle that releases estrogen and progesterone to dilate blood vessels and thicken the endometrium
238
Menstruation
The shedding and disposal of the endometrium
239
Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG)
Helps maintain the uterine lining during embryonic development
240
Seminiferous Tubules
SIte where sperm are produced
241
Epididymis
Site where sperm mature
242
Interstitial Cells
Produce Testosterone
243
Vas Deferens
Passage sperm take to get to the urethra
244
Seminal Vesicles
Provide sperm with fructose for energy
245
Prostate Gland
Provides an alkaline fluid that neutralizes vaginal acidity
246
Zygote
Combination of a sperm and egg
247
Cleavage
Rapid cell division of the embryo
248
Morula
Solid ball of cells
249
Blastula
Second stage of embryonic development
250
Blastocoel
Fluid filled cavity in the embryo
251
Gastrulation
Zygte changes shape
252
Germ Layers
- Ectoderm
- Mesoderm
- Endotherm
253
Ectotherm
Produces the epidermis, eyes, and nervous system
254
Mesoderm
Produces bones, muscles, excretory, circulatory, and reproductive systems
255
Endotherm
Produces the inner linings of the digestive and respiratory tract, as well as accessory organs (pancreas, gallbladder, and liver)
256
Neurula
Stage in which the notochord and neural tube are made
257
Notochord
A rod shaped structure running beneath the nerve chord
258
Neural Tube
Cells that develop into the CNS
259
Extaembryonic Membranes
- Yolk Sac
- Amnion
- Chorion
- Allantois
260
Yolk Sac
Provides food for the embryo
261
Amnion
Forms a fluid filled sac that protects the embryo
262
Allantois
Membrane involved in gas exchange, stores uric acid
263
Chorion
Surrounds all other extraembryonic membranes
264
Placenta
Provides the fetus with nutrients and oxygen and gets rid of fetal waste
265
Umbilical Cord
Connects the embryo to the placenta
266
Induction
Determining the fate of embryonic tissues during development
267
Organizers
Release chemical substances that moves from one tissue to target tissues
268
Morphogens
Chemical substances that determine the fate of a target tissue in development
269
Homoetic Genes
Control the development of the embryo
270
Homeobox Genes
Similar DNA sequences that encode proteins to bind to DNA in order to tell cells what structures they will form
271
Differentiation
Creating specialized cells from unspecialized cells
272
Hox Genes
Specify the positions of body parts in the developing embryo
273
Apoptosis
Programmed cell death and assists in determining the final shape of the offspring
