Applied Anatomy And Physiology (1.1) Flashcards
(103 cards)
1
Q
What’s a ligament
A
Connects bone to bone, to stabilise joint
2
Q
What’s synovial fluid
A
Lubricates the joint to reduce friction and nourish articular cartilage (cartilage that surrounds the joint)
3
Q
What’s articular cartilage
A
Absorbs shock and allows friction free movement
4
Q
What’s a joint capsule
A
Encloses and strengthens the joint
5
Q
What’s a bursa
A
Fluid-filled sacs found where tendons rub over bones to reduce friction
6
Q
What’s a tendon
A
Connects muscle to bone
7
Q
What’s flexion
A
Decrease in joint angle
E.g. upwards phase in bicep curl
8
Q
What’s extension
A
Increase in joint angle
E.g. Downwards phase in bicep curl
9
Q
What’s adduction
A
Movement of the limb towards mid-line of the body
E.g. End of a star jump
10
Q
What’s abduction
A
Movement of the limb away from the mid-line of the body
E.g. start of a star jump
11
Q
What’s plantar-flexion
A
Pointing toes downwards
E.g. Leaving the ground to jump
12
Q
What’s dorsi-flexion
A
Pulling toes upwards towards your shin
E.g. A tennis serve
13
Q
What’s rotation
A
Movement of the limb around the joint
E.g. swimming (butterfly)
14
Q
Three types of joints and all examples for all three
A
1) Hinge= Ankle, knee, elbow
2) Ball and socket= Shoulder, hip
3) Condyloid= Wrist
15
Q
Three roles of muscles
A
Agonist
Antagonist
Fixator
16
Q
What’s an agonist
A
Creates the movement, sometimes known as the prime mover (concentrically contracts)
17
Q
What’s an antagonist
A
Co-ordinates the movement by working opposite the agonist
18
Q
What’s a fixator
A
Stabilises the joint during the movement
19
Q
What are the 3 types of contractions
A
Concentric
Eccentric
Isometric
20
Q
Define concentric contraction
A
Shortens under tension
E.g. bicep brachii in upwards phase of bicep curl
21
Q
Define eccentric
A
Lengthens under tension
E.g. Tricep brachii in upwards phase of bicep curl
22
Q
Define isometric
A
Stays the same length under tension
E.g. Handstand, scrum (when same force is applied against you)
23
Q
Describe the ankle joint
A
- Hinge joint
- Articulating bones= Tibia, Fibula and Talus
- Dorsi-flexion= Tibialis Anterior is agonist
- Plantar-flexion= Gastrocnemius and Soleus is agonist
24
Q
Describe the knee joint
A
- Hinge joint
- Articulating bones= Femur and Tibia
- Flexion= Bicep Femoris
- Extension= Rectus Femoris
25
Describe the hip joint
- Ball and socket joint
- Articulating bones= Pelvis and Femur
- Flexion= Illiopsoas
- Extension= Gluteus maximus
- Abduction= Gluteus medius and minimus
- Adduction= Adductor Longus
26
Describe the wrist joint
- Condyloid
- Articulating bones= Radius, Ulna, Carpals
- Flexion= Wrist flexors
- Extension= Wrist extensors
27
Describe the elbow joint
- Hinge joint
- Articulating bones= Humerus, Radius, Ulna
- Flexion= Bicep brachii
- Extension= Tricep brachii
28
Describe the shoulder joint
- Ball and socket
- Articulating bones= Humerus and Scapula
- Flexion= Anterior deltoid
- Extension= Posterior deltoid
- Abduction= Middle deltoid
- Adduction= Latissimus Dorsi
- Horizontal flexion= Pectoralis major
- Horizontal Extension= Posterior deltoid/Trapezius
29
Movements at the Sagittal plane
Where does it split the body
Flexion and Extension
Dorsi-Flexion and plantar-Flexion
(Splits body left and right)
30
Movements at the frontal plane
Where does it split the body
Abduction and Adduction
| Splits body front and back
31
Movements at the transverse plane
Where does it split the body
Horizontal extension and horizontal Flexion
| Splits body top and bottom
32
What’s the origin
Point at which the muscle attaches to a stationary bone that stays fixed during movement
E.g. bicep brachii origin during a bicep curl is the humerus
33
What’s the insertion
Point at which the muscle attaches to the moveable bone which will get closer to the origin during a contraction
E.g. bicep brachii insertion during bicep curl is the radius
34
Motor unit causing muscular contraction
| Not on advanced info
- Motor unit= muscle fibres and motor neuron
- Motor unit carries nerve impulses from CNS to muscle fibres initiating contraction
- Process requires Action Potential which is a positive electrical charge which conducts the nerve impulse down the neuron into muscle fibre
- Point where Axon Motor end plates meet muscle fibre is called Neuromuscular Junction
- There’s a gap called the Synaptic Cleft
- Action potential can’t cross the synaptic cleft without neurotransmitter called acetylcholine
- When across, the all or none law occurs
35
What’s the all or none law
When action potential reaches the threshold charge, all muscle fibres within the Motor unit will contract at the same time with maximum force. If the threshold charge isn’t reached then none of the muscle fibres will contract
36
What’s atrial systole
When both atria contract to force blood into ventricles
37
What’s ventricular systole
Phase when both ventricles contract to eject blood into the pulmonary artery and Aorta
38
What’s diastole
Relaxation of the cardiac cycle, no contraction takes place. Blood enters the atria from the Vena Cava and Pulmonary Vein
39
Describe the 3 stages of the heart, including the conduction of impulse
1) Blood enters the atria via the Vena Cava and the Pulmonary Vein. Atria and ventricles are relaxed. DIASTOLE. No impulse occurs
2) Both atria contract. Blood is forced from atria to ventricles. ATRIAL SYSTOLE. Impulse from SA node to AV node
3) Blood is forced from ventricles to the Aorta and pulmonary artery. VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE. AV node to Bundle of his to Purkinje fibres
40
What’s heart rate
What’s it at rest and maximum for an untrained athlete
Number of beats of the heart per minute
```
Rest= 60-75 bpm
Maximal= 220-age
```
41
What’s stroke volume
What’s it at rest and maximum for an untrained athlete
Volume of blood ejected from the left ventricle per beat
```
Rest= 70ml per beat
Maximal= 100-120ml
```
42
What’s cardiac output
What’s it at rest and maximum for an untrained athlete
Volume of blood ejected from the left ventricle per minute
```
Rest= 5l per minute
Maximal= 20-30l per minute
```
43
What’s heart rate, stroke volume and cardiac output values for a trained athlete
Heart rate:
Rest= 50bpm
Maximal= 220-age
Stroke volume:
Rest= 100ml per beat
Maximal= 160-220ml per beat
Cardiac output:
Rest= 5l per min
Maximal= 30-40l per min
44
Controlled by neural control
What’s the sympathetic nervous system
What’s the parasympathetic nervous system
- Sympathetic nervous system = Responds to exercise by stimulating the SA node to increase heart rate
- Parasympathetic nervous system = Responds to cease of exercise by reducing stimulation of the SA node to reduce heart rate
45
How does the sympathetic nervous system increase heart rate
| Neural control
- Controlled by the Cardiac Control Centre(CCC) situated in Medulla Oblongata in the brain
- CCC receives information from receptors concerning changes due to exercise starting (pressure in blood vessels, increase acidity in blood and increase movement)
- CCC sends nerves down the accelerator nerve to increase firing rate of the SA node, increasing heart rate meaning more oxygen delivered to working muscles
46
How does parasympathetic nervous system decrease heart rate
| Neural control
- Controlled by Cardiac Control Centre (CCC) situated in Medulla Oblongata in the brain
- CCC receives information from 3 receptors regarding various changes (decrease pressure in blood vessels, decrease acidity, decrease movement) as a result of exercise stopping
- CCC sends impulses down Vagus Nerve to decrease firing rate of SA node, decreasing heart rate meaning less oxygen delivered to working muscles
47
Controlled by intrinsic control
What are the two factors of intrinsic control that affect heart rate
Temperature
Venous return
48
How does temperature regulate heart rate
| Intrinsic control
Temperature changes of the body as you exercise will affect the viscosity and also the speed of nerve transmissions
49
How does venous return regulate heart rate
| Intrinsic control
Venous return changes will affect the stretch in ventricle walls, therefore mean they will contract with more force and increase stroke volume.
This is known as Starlings Law.
50
Hormonal control in regulating the heart rate
What one factor is part of hormonal control
In response to exercise, Adrenalin and Nor-Adrenalin are released from the Adrenal gland. These hormones have a direct affect on force of contraction of the heart, increasing stroke volume and firing rate of SA node, increasing heart rate.
Combined effect will increase cardiac output and delivery of oxygenated blood to working muscles
51
5 venous return mechanisms
```
Pocket valves
Muscular pump
Respiratory pump
Smooth muscle
Gravity
```
52
Describe pocket valves and muscular pump
Pocket valves= Located In the veins to prevent back flow of blood
Muscular pump= Contraction of skeletal muscle during exercise which compresses the veins forcing blood back to heart
53
Describe respiratory pump and smooth muscle
Respiratory pump= During inspiration and expiration a pressure difference between the thoracic and abdominal cavities is created which squeezes blood back to heart
Smooth muscle= Layer of smooth muscle in walls of veins venoconstricts to create venomotor tone maintain pressure in veins helping blood back to heart
54
Describe gravity as a venous return mechanism
Blood from above the heart returns towards the heart with help of gravity
55
Redistribution of cardiac output during exercise
- Cardiac output is redistributed to working muscles to aid performance. This is done by the vascular shunt mechanism
- Redistribution of blood is controlled by the vasomotor control centre(VCC) in the Medulla Oblongata
- VCC receives information from chemoreceptors regarding increase in blood acidity and baroreceptors regarding pressure changes in arterial walls
- This causes the VCC to alter stimulation of arterioles in different areas of body via vasomotor nerves
56
What’s the result of the VCC altering stimulation of arterioles via vasomotor nerves
Vasoconstriction= When the lumen of artery gets smaller to allow less blood through
Vasodilation= When the lumen of the artery gets bigger to allow more blood through
Pre-Capillary sphincters= Prevents blood flowing into the muscle and re-directs it (If they contract)
They relax if they lead to working muscles
57
State of arteries and pre-Capillary Sphincters when at rest (leading to muscles and leading to organs)
Leading to muscles:
- Arteries = Vasoconstrict
- Pre-Capillary sphincters = Contract
Leading to organs:
- Arteries = Vasodilate
- Pre-Capillary sphincters = Relaxed
Overall, more blood travels to organs during rest than muscles
58
State of arteries and pre-Capillary sphincters during exercise (leading to working muscles and organs)
Leading to working muscles:
- Arteries = Vasodilate
- Pre-Capillary sphincters = Relaxed
Leading to organs:
- Arteries = Vasoconstrict
- Pre-Capillary sphincters = Contract
Overall, more blood flows to the working muscles during exercise than organs
59
The respiratory system has two main functions:
What are they
Pulmonary ventilation
And Gaseous exchange
60
What’s pulmonary ventilation
The inspiration and expiration, of air from the atmosphere around us
61
What’s gaseous exchange
Movement of O2 and CO2 at the lungs and at the muscles by the process of diffusion
62
What do the respiratory muscles work to do
To cause volume changes within the thoracic cavity to cause air to be inhaled and exhaled
63
What does blood consist of
55% of plasma
45% of red blood cells
64
Once oxygen has passed from alveoli into the blood it is carried in two ways
- 97% combines with haemoglobin, to produce oxyhaemoglobin (HbO2)
- 3% is dissolved within the blood plasma
65
The waste product of aerobic respiration Carbon dioxide is also transported in the blood, this time in three ways (oxygen is two ways)
- 70% dissolved in water and carried as Carbonic acid
- 23% combines with haemoglobin to create carbaminohaemoglobin
- 7% dissolved in blood plasma
66
What does haemoglobin has a greater affinity for carbon dioxide mean
Haemoglobin has a greater affinity for carbon dioxide. When a muscle is tired it picks up the CO2 and drops off the O2
67
What’s submaximal exercise intensity
What’s maximal exercise intensity
Submaximal exercise intensity= Aerobic/long duration/ Low-moderate intensity
Maximal exercise intensity= Anaerobic/ short duration/ high intensity
68
Sub maximal exercise effect on heart rate
5 stages
Graphs of effect of submaximal and maximal exercise on heart rate in yellow book
1) Anticipatory rise
2) Start of exercise, change of intensity
3) Plateau, as the amount of oxygenated blood needed is matched to demand
4) Exercise stops, heart rate decreases rapidly
5) Slower decrease to get to resting state
69
Inspiration and expiration, ones passive and ones active during rest and what does this mean
Inspiration= Active- muscles contracting
Expiration= Passive- muscles relax
This is during rest
70
Describe the mechanics of breathing during inspiration at rest
- Diaphragm and External intercostals= Contract
- Rib cage= Moves up and out
- Volume of thoracic cavity= Increases
- Pressure of air inside lungs= Decreases, below atmospheric pressure
- Air rushes= Into lungs
71
Describe the mechanics of breathing during expiration at rest
- Diaphragm and External intercostals= Relax
- Rib cage moves= Down and in
- Volume of thoracic cavity= Decreases
- Pressure of air inside lungs= Increases, above atmospheric pressure
- Air rushes= Out of lungs
72
What are the 2 muscles involved in the mechanics of breathing at rest
External intercostals and diaphragm
73
2 additional muscles involved in inspiration during exercise and recovery
What are they
- Sternocleidomastoid
| - Pectoralis Major
74
2 additional muscles involved in expiration during exercise and recovery
What are they
- Internal intercostals
| - Rectus abdominis
75
Describe the mechanics of breathing during inspiration during exercise
- Diaphragm and External intercostals Contract with MORE force
- Additional muscles involved= Sternocleidomastoid and Pectoralis Major
- Diaphragm= Flattens more
- Rib cage moves= Up and out MORE
- Volume of thoracic cavity= Increases MORE
- Pressure of air inside lungs= Decreases MORE
- Large Volume of air moves= IN
- SO DEPTH OF BREATHING INCREASES
76
Describe the mechanics of breathing during expiration during exercise
- Diaphragm and external intercostals= Relax MORE
- Additional muscles involved= Internal intercostals and Rectus Abdominis contract
- Diaphragm= Is pushed further up rib cage
- Rib cage moves= Down and in MORE
- Volume of thoracic cavity= Decreases MORE
- Pressure of air inside lungs= Increases MORE
- A larger volume of air moves= Out
- SO RATE OF BREATHING INCREASES
77
What’s diffusion
Movement of a gas down a diffusion gradient from an area of high partial pressure to an area of low partial pressure
77
What’s a diffusion gradient
The difference between the areas of high partial pressure and low partial pressure
78
What’s partial pressure
The pressure a gas exerts within a mixture of gases
79
What’s internal respiration
CO2 or O2 diffuses from the blood into the muscles or from the muscles into the blood
80
What’s External respiration
CO2 or O2 diffuses from the blood into the lungs or from the lungs into the blood
81
What does myoglobin do
What does haemoglobin do
Myoglobin carries O2 in the muscles
Haemoglobin carries O2 in the bloodstream
82
What’s breathing frequency (f)
Number of breaths per minute
83
What’s tidal volume (TV)
The volume of air inspired or expired per breath
84
What’s minute ventilation (VE)
The volume of air inspired or expired per minute
Tidal volume x breathing frequency
VE= TV x f
85
At rest for an untrained athlete
Breathing frequency
Tidal volume
Minute ventilation
Breathing frequency= 12 breaths per minute
Tidal volume= 500ml
Minute ventilation= 6l per minute
86
Rest for an endurance athlete
Breathing frequency
Tidal volume
Minute ventilation
Breathing frequency= 10 breaths per minute
Tidal volume= 500ml
Minute ventilation= 5l per minute
They have a lower minute ventilation as they’re more efficient (breathing frequency is lower)
87
What’s used to measure and record volumes of inspired and expired air
What’s the graph thats produced
Spirometer is what’s used to measure and record
Spirograph is the graph produced. This graph will tell you TV and f, from which you can calculate VE
88
What’s the respiratory control centre (RCC)
Situated in the Medulla Oblongata in the brain, which controls respiration rate and depth
89
What’s the inspiratory centre (IC)
What’s the expiratory centre (EC)
The part of the RCC that controls inspiration
The part of the RCC that controls expiration
90
What’s the phrenic nerve
The nerve that stimulate the diaphragm to contract
91
Whats the intercostal nerve
The nerve that stimulates the external intercostals to contract
92
What do the receptors detect for the Respiratory control centre
(Same as for the VCC and the CCC)
- Chemoreceptors= detect decreased O2, increased acidity etc
- Baroreceptors= detect increased blood pressure
- Proprioreceptors= detect increased muscle activity
- Thermoreceptors= detect increased body temperature.
These receptors inform the RCC which controls the IC and EC
93
What does the inspiratory centre do
| During exercise
- Increases stimulation of phrenic nerve so diaphragm contracts with more force
- Increases stimulation of intercostal nerve so external intercostals contract with more force
- Stimulates additional muscles to contract- Sternocleidomastoid and Pectoralis Major
- This increases volume of thoracic cavity and decreases pressure in lungs more than at rest
- More air rushes in- Increasing depth of breathing
94
What does the expiratory centre do
| During exercise
- Stimulates additional muscles to contract- Internal intercostals and Rectus abdominis
- This decreases volume of thoracic cavity and increases pressure in lungs more than at rest
- More air rushes out- Increasing rate of breathing
95
What’s the Hering-Breuer reflex
1) Additional specialist baroreceptors or stretch receptors between the ribs monitor the level of stretch in the lungs.
Once a threshold is reached, the expiratory centre becomes active and initiates the contraction of the additional muscles to produce a faster and greater expiration
96
How does external respiration occur (exchange of gases at the lungs and blood)
- Oxygen moves from high partial pressure in the alveoli into the low partial pressure Capillary blood. (Alveoli pO2= 105 and Capillary pO2= 40 therefore difference of 65mmHg)
- Carbon dioxide moves from high partial pressure in Capillary blood to low partial pressure of alveoli (Capillary pCO2= 46 and alveoli pCO2= 40, therefore difference is 6mmHg)
- CO2 able to cross into lungs with a far smaller diffusion gradient
97
How does internal respiration occur (exchange of gases at muscle cells)
- Oxygen moves from high partial pressure in Capillary blood into low partial pressure muscle cell.
- (Capillary blood pO2=100 and muscle cell pO2=40, therefore oxygen diffuses into the muscle cell)
- Carbon dioxide moves from high partial pressure in muscle cells into low partial pressure in Capillary blood. (Muscle cell pCO2=46 and Capillary blood pCO2= 4, therefore CO2 diffuses into Capillary blood
98
Explain oxygen dissociation from haemoglobin
Called the oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve
Graph of it is in yellow book
- Haemoglobin is able to carry 4 oxygen molecules, and when partial pressure of oxygen is high then it will readily associate with the haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin
- Partial Pressure of Oxygen In alveoli is very high so blood leaving here will be nearly 100% saturated
- As partial pressure of oxygen decreases the haemoglobin more readily dissociates with oxygen releasing it into respiring tissues such as working muscles
99
What happens to amount of oxygen released from the oxyhaemoglobin during exercise compared to rest
More oxygen is released from oxyhaemoglobin during exercise as more is being used for the working muscles.
100
Why does more oxygen move into the muscles
Because the partial pressure of oxygen is less in the muscles during exercise, therefore more oxygen moves into the muscles
101
Alongside partial pressure of oxygen lowering, there are three other effects of exercise which increase the dissociation of oxygen. (The Bohr shift)
During exercise, the muscle tissue:
- Increases in temperature
- Increases production of CO2 (raising pCO2)- as haemoglobin prefers CO2
- Increases production of lactic acid and carbonic acid (lowers pH, increasing acidity)
Above factors mean dissociation of oxygen is far greater and enhances volume of O2 available for diffusion to respiring tissues (working muscles)
- This is a reason why warm up is important to an aerobic athlete
102
Effect of different intensities and recovery on f and TV:
- Describe what happens (graph)
- Explain why f increases with intensity
- Explain why f plateaus towards maximal intensity
- Explain why f plateaus during sustained submaximal intensity
Graph in yellow book
- f increases linearly with intensity
- f plateaus as intensity continues to rise towards maximal intensity
- f plateaus during sustained submaximal exercise
f increases with intensity because:
- O2 demand from muscles increases
- Respiratory system must get a greater volume of O2 into lungs
f plateaus towards maximal intensity because:
- Minimum time for inspiration to ensure enough O2 enters lungs
f plateaus during sustained submaximal intensity because:
- O2 demand=O2 supply and enough O2 is delivered to working muscles
