Skill Acquisition (2.1)

Question 1

principle theories of learning

Answer 1

• Operant conditioning (Thorndikes laws)
• Cognitive theories of learning
• Social Learning/observational learning theory

Question 2

Give an example of operant conditioning

Describe it

Answer 2

Skinner

• Skinner used a box with a rat inside it. If rat hit a lever inside the box, a food pellet would be released.
• Through trial and error, the rat eventually learned hitting the lever would produce food
• Hitting lever gave food (reward), which reinforced the hitting action
• Reinforcement strengthens stimulus-response (S-R) bond

Question 3

The 3 characteristics of operant conditioning

Answer 3

• Positive reinforcement = The stimulus is given when the desired response occurs
• Negative reinforcement = An unpleasant stimulus is withdrawn when desired response occurs
• Punishment = An unpleasant stimulus given to prevent a response occurring

Question 4

What’s complete reinforcement

Answer 4

Learning is faster this way; when a reward is given on every occasion

Question 5

What’s partial reinforcement

Answer 5

Learning takes longer but lasts longer; a reward is given after a number of correct responses

Question 6

Problems with use of rewards

Answer 6

• Rewards can lead to enjoyment of the activity to be lost. E.g. young swimmer being just interested in gaining the next badge, and loses thrill of swimming
• Partial reinforcement more effective long term, than complete reinforcement

Question 7

What do the Thorndikes laws do

Answer 7

• Laws are linked to operant conditioning
• How fully we develop an S-R bond depends on extent the 3 laws are applied
• Laws on strengthening the S-R bond

Question 8

What are the 3 thorndikes laws

Answer 8

Law of exercise
Law of effect
Law of readiness

Question 9

What’s the law of exercise

Answer 9

Repeating or rehearsing the S-R connections is more likely to strengthen them.

E.g. Gymnast practises a floor routine repeatedly, the stimulus-response bonds are repeated or ‘exercised’

Question 10

What’s the law of effect

Answer 10

• If response is followed by a ‘satisfier’, the S-R bond is strengthened.
• If response is followed by an ‘annoyer’, the S-R bond is weakened

Question 11

Law of readiness

Answer 11

• Performer must be physically and mentally able to complete the task effectively

Question 12

2) Cognitive theories of learning

Describe it

Answer 12

• We often learn taking into account our environment. E.g. Football player adapting play due to ground being slippery
• Work out what’s happening using our memories of past experiences, from long term memory
• Giving children lots of sporting experiences will help future learning, as they can draw from these experiences

Question 13

3) Social learning/observational learning theory

Describe it

Answer 13

• Those we view as being high status to us, or significant others, are much more likely to be copied
• We observe and copy/imitate behaviour to help us be part of a group, and be more socially acceptable. This is called social learning.
• Observational Learning, the person being observed is the model
• This theory’s about imitating behaviour

Question 14

Process of observational learning (According to Bandura)

Copying or modelling can affect our performance through 4 processes

Answer 14

1) Attention= To imitate, the performer must pay attention to demonstration and focus on important cues (cueing)
2) Retention= Observer must be able to remember the model that’s presented
3) Motor reproduction= Observer must be physically able to imitate the skill being observed.
4) Motivation= Level of motivation of observer is crucial, if they’re going to imitate performance.

Question 15

Types of guidance

Answer 15

Verbal
Visual
Manual and mechanical

Question 16

What’s verbal guidance

Advantages and disadvantages

Answer 16

• Used to describe the action and explain how to perform activity

Advantages: - Can be in form of feedback, identifying errors

• Can be used to motivate player, learn and develop motor skil
• Can hold attention of performer
• Effective for autonomous learners

Disadvantages: -Information overload, lead to confusion or getting distracted

• Guidance can be inaccurate, result in learning skills wrongly
• Limited to beginners

Question 17

What’s visual guidance

Advantages and disadvantages

Answer 17

• Help cognitive learners build a mental image of how the skill should look

Advantages: - Performer find it easier to create mental image of skill

• Enable skill to be seen in different stages, easier to learn
• Encourages observational learning, drawing attention to important cues

Disadvantages: -Demonstration could be inaccurate

• Demonstration may be too quick to follow or unclear
• Coach may not be able to show accurate demonstration

Question 18

What’s manual and mechanical guidance

Answer 18

• Mechanical guidance= Physical support for performer by another mechanical object. E.g. use of a twisting belt in trampolining
• Manual guidance= Performer being directed physically by another person. E.g. holding arms of a golfer and forcing them through motion of a drive

Question 19

Advantages and disadvantages of mechanical and manual guidance

Answer 19

Advantages= -Give performers sense of safety, therefore increase confidence
- Can be used to isolate important aspects of the skill

Disadvantages= -Can be over-restrictive to performer who feels a lack of control over movement
- Can lead to a ‘false sense of kinaesthesis’. Feeling what the skill is like with the support, not without the support

Question 20

Types of feedback

Answer 20

Intrinsic 
Extrinsic 
Positive 
Negative 
Knowledge of results 
Knowledge of performance

Question 21

What’s intrinsic feedback

Advantages and disadvantages

Answer 21

• Involves information available to performer that is internal

Advantages: -Feedback occurs as movement is performed, therefore readily available

• Performer doesn’t have to rely on others
• Autonomous learners have accurate intrinsic feedback, can be interpreted correctly, leading improved performance

Disadvantages: -Cognitive learners will not have accurate interpretation of skill
-Some performers able to feel and interpret movements more effectively than others

Question 22

What’s extrinsic feedback

Advantages and disadvantages

Answer 22

• Feedback from an external source from the performer

Advantages= -Coach can give coaching points that lead to improvements, as long as information is accurate and relevant.
- Can Increase motivation and performance

Disadvantages= -Inaccurate feedback can affect performance negatively

• If source of feedbacks unreliable, performers motivation can drop
• Doesn’t encourage as much kinaesthetic awareness than intrinsic feedback

Question 23

What’s positive feedback

Advantages and disadvantages

Answer 23

-Involves information that’s extrinsic and rewards performer via praise or positive comments

Advantages= -Positive feedback, lead to positive reinforcement, enabling correct S-R bond formed

• Motivating, especially cognitive learners
• Build self-esteem and confidence

Disadvantages= -Underserved, performer may build inappropriate S-R bonds, deteriorating performance
-Performers don’t respond well to too much praise and may ignore feedback, hindering performance

Question 24

What’s negative feedback

Advantages and disadvantages

Answer 24

-Can be in form of criticism, concentrate on poor aspects of performance and results

Advantages: -Some are motivated well by negative feedback, resulting in determined behaviour

• Clear what needs improving
• Good feedback for autonomous learners

Disadvantages: -Can be demotivating, especially if it’s a cognitive learner
-Can be detrimental to learning process, if feedback is inaccurate

Question 25

What’s knowledge of results

Answer 25

• Feedback is External, seeing result of their response or from another person
• Important for performer to know result of their action. Little learning without this, especially in cognitive

Question 26

What’s knowledge of performance

Answer 26

-Normally associated with external feedback, but can be gained through kinaesthetic awareness, especially if performers autonomous, therefore knows what a good performance feels like