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AQA GCSE BIOLOGY PAPER 1 > B6 Preventing and treating disease > Flashcards

B6 Preventing and treating disease Flashcards

1
Q

What does every cell have on its surface?

A

unique proteins called antigens

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2
Q

The antigens on the microorganisms that get into your body are…

A

…different to the ones on your own cells

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3
Q

Your _____ system recognises that the ____ on the micro-organisms that get into your body are _____ to the ones on your __ cells

A

i) immune
ii) antigens
iii) different
iv) own

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4
Q

What happens after your immune system recognises the difference between the antigens on the micro-organisms that enter your body?

A

your WBCs make specific anti-bodies

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5
Q

What do antibodies do?

A

join up with antigens and inactivate or destroy that particular pathogen

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6
Q

What can some of your white blood cells do?

A

memory cells ‘remember’ the right antibody needed to destroy a particular pathogen

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7
Q

What happens if you meet the same pathogen you have before?

A

the memory cells can make the same antibody very quickly to kill the pathogen, so you become immune to the disease

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8
Q

Why do you get ill the first time you meet a new pathogen

A

there is a delay while your body sorts out the right antibody needed

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9
Q

Some pathogens can make you seriously ill very quick;y. Give an example

A

meningitis

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10
Q

Why can you die very quickly by serious diseases?

A

the disease affects the body before it manages to make the right antibodies

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11
Q

What does immunization involve?

A

giving a vaccine made of a dead or inactivated form of a disease-causing microorganism

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12
Q

What do dead or inactivated form of a disease-causing microoganism stimulates?

A

your body’s natural immune response to invading pathogens

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13
Q

What happens in a vaccination?

A
  • small amount of dead/inactive forms of a pathogen is introduced into the body
  • stimulates while blood cells to product antibodies needed to fight the pathogen and prevent you from being ill
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14
Q

Why do vaccinations work?

A

if you meet the same, live pathogen, your white blood cells can respond rapidly

  • make right antibodies
  • just as if you already had the disease
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15
Q

What do doctors use vaccines to protect us from?

A

against both bacterial diseases and viral diseases

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16
Q

Name two bacterial diseases

A

tetanus and diphtheria

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17
Q

Name three viral diseases

A

polio, measles and mumps

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18
Q

What is herd immunity?

A

if a large proportion of the population is immune to a disease, spread of pathogen reduces and may even disappear

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19
Q

What is a drawback of herd immunity?

A

it will take money and determination

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20
Q

Often medicine doesn’t affect the pathogen that is causing the problems. What does it do?

A

eases the symptoms and makes you feel better

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21
Q

Give examples of drugs that are very useful pain killers?

A

aspirin and paracetamol

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22
Q

Painkillers help relieve but…

A

have no effect on the viruses that have entered your tissues and made you feel ill

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23
Q

What are antiseptics and disinfectants used for?

A

to kill bacteria outside the body; far too poisonous to use inside your body

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24
Q

What are the drugs that have really changed the treatment of communicable diseases?

A

antibiotics

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25
Q

What are antibiotics?

A

Medicines that can work inside your body to kill BACTERIAL pathogens

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26
Q

When were antibiotics first widely available?

A

1940s

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27
Q

An example of antibiotic?

A

penicillin

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28
Q

how do antibiotics work?

A

killing the bacterua that cause disease whilst they are in your body

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29
Q

What do antibiotics do?

A

damage the bacterial cells without harming your own cells

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30
Q

What form do antibiotics take

A

a pill/syrup

-very ill, antibiotics may be put straight into your bloodstream

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31
Q

Why are antibiotics sometimes put straight into the bloodstream?

A

make sure they reach the pathogens as soon as possible

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32
Q

Some antibiotics…

Others are…

A

…kill a wide range of bacteria

…are very specific and only work against particular bacteria

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33
Q

Specific bacteria should be treated with…

A

the specific antibiotic that is effective against them

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34
Q

What do viruses do?

A

reproduce inside the cells of your body

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35
Q

Why is is extremely difficult to develop drugs that will kill viruses?

A

risk of famaging the cells and tissues of your body as the same time

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36
Q

Drawback of antibiotics?

A

cannot kill viral pathogens

-strains of bacteria that are resistant to antibiotics are evolving

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37
Q

Traditionally, where were drugs extracted from?

A

plants or microorganisms such as moulds

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38
Q

How do scientists make more effective drugs nowadays?

A

often adapt chemicals from microorganisms, plants and animals

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39
Q

What is digitalis and digoxin?

A

one of several drugs extracted from foxgloves that have been used since the 18th century to help strengthen the heartbeat

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40
Q

What do doctors still use digoxin for?

A

older patients with heart problems

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41
Q

Large amounts of these chemicals in drugs can act as?

A

poisons

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42
Q

aspirin originates from?

A

a compound found in the bark of willow trees

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43
Q

What sort of properties to aspirin have and when were they recorded?

A

anti-flammatory and pain-relieving properties

-400BC

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44
Q

In 1897, what did Felix Hoffman do?

A

synthesised acetyl salicylic acid

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45
Q

What is aspirin and what does it do?

A

acetyl salicylic acid

-relieves pain and inflammation better than willow bark but has fewer side effects

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46
Q

aspirin is still commonly used to treat what?

A

a wide range of health problems

47
Q

In the early 20th century, scientists were looking for what?

A

chemicals that might kill bacteria and cure infectious diseases

48
Q

In 1928, who was growing bacteria for study purposes?

A

Alexander Fleming

49
Q

Why was Alexander Fleming rather careless?

A

often left the lids off his culture plates- health and safety procedures were not as good in those days

50
Q

After one holiday, what did Fleming see?

A

lots of his culture plates had mould growing on them

51
Q

What did Fleming notice in his culture plates after one holiday?

A

a clear ring in the jelly around some of the spots of mould

52
Q

What did Flemings realise?

A

something had killed the bacteria covering the gel

53
Q

What did Flemings call the substance that killed bacteria and why?

A

penicillin after penicillium mould that produced

54
Q

After his discovery, what did Flemings do?

A

unsuccessfully tried for several years to extract as active juice from the mould before giving up and moving on to other work

55
Q

What happened about 10 years after Fleming’s discovery?

A

Ernst Chain and Howard Florey were set about trying tying to extract penicillin

56
Q

What did Ernst Chain and Howard Florey do to extract penicillin?

A
  • they gave some penicillin to a man dying of a blood infection
  • recovered almost miraculously
57
Q

What did Ernst Chain and Howard Florey demonstrate?

A

that pencillin could cure bacterial infections in people

58
Q

What happened after Ernst Chain and Florey extracted penicillin?

A

Working with the company pfizer in the USA, they made penicillin on an industrial scale; producing enough to supply the demands of WW2

59
Q

Give an example where finding new medicine is difficult?

A

it is not easy to find chemicals that kill bacteria without damaging human cells

60
Q

How are most drugs now synthesised?

A

by research chemists working in the pharmaceutical industry using chemical banks and computer models
(however, the starting point may still be a chemical extracted from a plant or microorganism)

61
Q

What happens to compounds showing promise as antibiotics?

A

can be modified to produce more powerful molecules that can be synthesized easily and cheaply

62
Q

Why are scientists also collecting soil samples globally and searching for microorganisms?

A

to produce a new antibuitic against antibiotic-resistant bacteria

63
Q

How much of soil microorganisms can be cultured in the lab?

A

1% of soil microorganisms

64
Q

What have scientists developed that would enable them to grow microorganisms in the soil in a controlled way

A

A special unit

65
Q

Using the special unit technology, scientists were able to do what in 2015?

A

they announced a completely new type of antibiotic from some soil bacteria

66
Q

In tests so far, what have the soil bacteria proven to do?

A

the antibiotic has destroyed all bacteria including MRSA, and other antibiotic resistant pathogens
-it worked in mice

67
Q

Scientists test new medicines where?

A

in the labratory

68
Q

What has to happen to every new medical treatment?

A

to be extensively treated and trialed in a series of stages before it is used

69
Q

Why must new medical treatments be tested and trialled?

A

to make sure it works well and is as safe as possible

70
Q

A good medicine is what four things?

A
  1. Effective
  2. Safe
  3. Stable
  4. Successfully taken into and removed from your body
71
Q

What happens when scientists research a new medicine?

A

they have to make sure all the conditions are met

72
Q

Making sure that a medicine is up to all the right conditions can take how long?

A

up to 12 years to bring a new medicine into your doctor’s surgery

73
Q

How much does it cost for medicines to be extensively tested and trialled?

A

costs around £1700 million, including failures and capital costs

74
Q

Researchers target a disease and then…

A

make lots of possible new deugs

75
Q

Possible new drugs are tested in the laboratory why?

A

to find out if they are toxic and if they seem to do their job
-toxicity and efficacy

76
Q

In the lab, what are the possible new drugs tested on?

A

cells, tissues, and even whole organs

77
Q

At what stage do the new possible drugs usually fail at?

A

many chemicals fail at the testing of cells, tissues and even whole organs

78
Q

What happens to the small number of chemiclas that do pass the tests on cells, tissues and even whole organs and why?

A

labratory tested on animals to find out how they work in a whole living organism

79
Q

Why may testing on a whole living organism be useful?

A

gives information about possible doses and side effects

80
Q

What are the tissues and animals used for when testing and developing drugs?

A

as models to predict how the drugs may behave in humans

81
Q

What is the testing called when it is on cells, tissues and live animals?

A

preclinical testing

82
Q

Drugs that pass animal testing move on to what?

A

clinical trials

83
Q

What do clinical trials involve?

A

using healthy volunteers and patients

84
Q

What happens in in clinical trials?

A

-very low doses are given to healthy people to check for side effects

85
Q

In clinical trials, what happens if the drug is found to be safe?

A

it is tried on a small number of patients to see if it treats the disease

86
Q

If the drug seems to be safe and effective to affected people, what happens?

A

bigger clinical trials take place to find the optimum dose for the drug

87
Q

What happens if the medicine passes all the legal tests?

A

it is licenced so your doctor can prescribe it

-its safety will be monitored for as long as it is used

88
Q

In human trials, what do scientists use?

A

a double blind trial

89
Q

Why is a double blind trial used?

A

to see just how effective the new medice is

90
Q

What do the double blind trials involve?

A

a group of patients with the target disease agree ti take part in the trials

  • some are given a placebo
  • some are given new medicine
  • patients randomly allocated to the different groups
  • neither the doctor nor the patients know who has received the real drug/placebo until the trial is complete
  • the patients health is monitored carefully
91
Q

A placebo…

A

does not contain the drug

92
Q

What does the placebo often contain instead?

A

a different drug that is already used to treat the disease

93
Q

Placebos contain a different drug that is already used to treat a disease. What does this mean?

A

the patient is not deprived of treatment while taking part in the trial

94
Q

What happens to the results of drug tests and trials like all scientific research?

A

Published in journals after they have been scritinised in a process of peer review

95
Q

Why are the results of drug tests and trials published in journals?

A

so that other scientists working in the same area can check the results over, helping to prevent false claims

96
Q

Who looks at the published results of drug trials and decide which drugs give good value for money and should be prescribed by the NHS

A

National bodies such as the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence
(NICE)

97
Q

Like vaccinations, monoclonal antibodies rely on what?

A

on the immune system

98
Q

What are monoclonal antibodies?

A

proteins that are produced to target particular cells or chemicals in the body

99
Q

What are lymphocytes and what do they do?

A

They are a type of white blood cell that can make antibodies but cannot divide

100
Q

Tumour cells do not usually make antibodies. What can they do?

A

divide rapidly to make a clone of cells

101
Q

True or false. All mammals, including mice, produce lymphocytes.

A

True

102
Q

What is a hybridoma?

A

the cell made when scientists combine mice lymphocytes (that have been stimulated to make a particular antibody) with a type of tumour cell

103
Q

What do single hybridoma cells do?

A

divide to make a large number of identical cells that all produce the same antibodies

104
Q

What happens are single hybridoma cells divide to make a large number of identical cells that all produce the same antibodies?

A

the antibodies are collected and purified

105
Q

After they had been collected and purified, the antibodies are called

A

monoclonal antibodies

106
Q

What are scientists doing now to produce monoclonal antibodies that are less likely to be rejected by human cells?

A

combining mice cells with human cells

107
Q

Step by step production of monoclonal antibodies

A
  1. i) B lymphocutes make specific antibodies but do not divide
    ii) tumour cells that do not make antibodies but divide
  2. A hypridoma cell (makes specific antibodies and divides)
  3. The cells are cloned
  4. Monoclonal antibodies are sepearted, purified and can be used
108
Q

What are antigens and where are they often found?

A

protein molecules that are often found on the surface of cells (free protein molecules can act as antigens)

109
Q

The monoclonal antibodies produced from a ____ ___ of cells are specific to one ____ ___ on one ____ antigen

A

i) single clone
ii) binding site
iii) specific

110
Q

Uses of monoclonal antibodies?

A
  1. pregnancy tests
  2. diagnosis of disease
  3. measuring and monitoring
  4. research
  5. treating disease
111
Q

Explain how pregnancy tests work?

A

-relies on monoclonal antibodies that bind to the hormone human chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG) that is made in the early stages of pregnancy.

112
Q

How do monoclonal antibodies help diagnosis of disease

A

monoclonal antibodies are made to bind to specific antigens foound on pathogens, or on blood clots or on cancer cells

113
Q

How are monoclonal antibodies able to make it easy for doctors to detect problems before they are seriously affecting a patient’s health

A

monoclonal antibodies can also carry markers that make it easy for doctors to see where they have built up

114
Q

How can monoclonal antibodies be used for measuring and monitoring?

A

monoclonal antibodies are used in hospotals and laboratories to measure or monitor the levels sd

AQA GCSE BIOLOGY PAPER 1 (8 decks)

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