bare minimum 2 Flashcards
(4 cards)
“Social Perception: Attribution Processes and Impression Formation”
🥇 HIGH PRIORITY
▪️ 1.Attribution Theories
1.Attribution: Inference about the cause of behavior
2.Heider’s Attribution Theory:
1.Internal (dispositional) vs External (situational) causes
2.Jones & Davis: Correspondent Inference Theory
We attribute actions to stable traits when behavior is freely chosen, socially undesirable, and has specific effects
3.Kelley’s Covariation Model:
Based on 3 types of information:
Consensus (do others behave the same?)
Distinctiveness (is it unique to the situation?)
Consistency (does it happen repeatedly?)
▪️ 2.Attribution Errors & Biases
1.Fundamental Attribution Error: Overemphasizing internal causes in others
2.Actor-Observer Bias: Attributing our behavior to situations, others’ to traits
3.Self-Serving Bias: Attributing success to self, failure to situation
🥈 MEDIUM PRIORITY
▪️ 1.Impression Formation
1.Primacy Effect: First traits influence impression more than later ones
2.Asch’s Configural Model:
3.Warm/cold traits shape overall impression (central vs peripheral traits)
Implicit Personality Theories:
1.We assume certain traits go together (e.g., kind = generous)
▪️ Nonverbal Cues & First Impressions
Facial expressions, tone, posture used to form quick judgments
Thin Slices: People make accurate judgments based on very brief observations
🥉 LOW PRIORITY
▪️ Cultural Differences in Attribution
Western cultures: Prefer dispositional attributions
Eastern cultures: More emphasis on situational attributions
▪️ Ambady & Rosenthal (1993)
Showed accuracy of “thin slices” of behavior (quick impressions can match longer judgments)
▪️ Role of Schemas
Schemas guide interpretation of behavior and impression formation
Can lead to confirmation bias (we seek info that confirms initial impression)
“Stereotypes and Prejudice”
🥇 HIGH PRIORITY
▪️ Definitions
1.Stereotype: Cognitive generalization about a group
2.Prejudice: Affective, emotional evaluation of a group
3.Discrimination: Behavioral action against a group based on prejudice
▪️ Cognitive Origins
11.Social Categorization: Automatic grouping of people → simplifies world
2.Ingroup vs Outgroup: Favoring one’s own group → ingroup bias
3.Outgroup Homogeneity Effect: Seeing outgroup members as “all the same”
▪️ Theories of Prejudice
1.Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner):
2.Self-esteem linked to group status
3.Boosting ingroup, discriminating against outgroup increases self-worth
4.Realistic Conflict Theory (Sherif):
5.Prejudice arises from competition over limited resources
6.Seen in Robbers Cave experiment (boys in rival groups → conflict → cooperation through superordinate goals)
🥈 MEDIUM PRIORITY
▪️ Implicit vs Explicit Prejudice
Explicit: Conscious, deliberate prejudice
Implicit: Unconscious bias (e.g., Implicit Association Test – IAT)
Even people who deny prejudice may show bias in behavior (e.g., seating, eye contact)
▪️ Stereotype Activation and Application
Stereotypes can be activated automatically (priming)
Application depends on motivation, cognitive resources, social norms
▪️ Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Expectations based on stereotypes influence behavior → confirms stereotype
Example: Teachers expect poor performance → treat students differently → students perform poorly
🥉 LOW PRIORITY
▪️ Reducing Stereotypes and Prejudice
Contact Hypothesis (Allport):
Prejudice decreases with equal status contact, common goals, and institutional support
Perspective Taking: Seeing from another’s point of view reduces prejudice
Re-categorization: Creating a common ingroup identity
▪️ Modern Prejudice
Subtle, indirect forms (e.g., microaggressions, symbolic racism)
May appear only in ambiguous situations
▪️ Role of Media and Culture
Reinforces or challenges stereotypes
Media representation affects group perception
“Altruism and Aggression: Determinants and Development”
🥇 HIGH PRIORITY
▪️ Definitions
Altruism: Selfless behavior intended to help others, often at a personal cost
Aggression: Behavior intended to harm or injure another
▪️ Theoretical Models of Altruism
Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis (Batson):
Altruism stems from genuine empathy for others
Social Exchange Theory:
Helping is based on cost-benefit analysis (help if benefits > costs)
Evolutionary Perspective:
Kin Selection: Help those genetically related
Reciprocal Altruism: Help now, expect help later
▪️ Bystander Effect (Latane & Darley)
Diffusion of Responsibility: More people → less personal responsibility
Steps to Helping: Notice → Interpret as emergency → Take responsibility → Know how to help → Decide to help
Famous study: Kitty Genovese case
▪️ Aggression Types & Origins
Hostile Aggression: Emotion-driven (e.g., anger)
Instrumental Aggression: Goal-driven (e.g., robbery)
Biological roots: Genetics, hormones (e.g., testosterone)
Social Learning (Bandura): Learn aggression through observation (e.g., Bobo doll experiment)
🥈 MEDIUM PRIORITY
▪️ Situational Influences on Helping
Mood: Good mood → more likely to help
Guilt: Increases helping
Similarity to victim: More likely to help
Time pressure: Less time → less helping
▪️ Situational Triggers of Aggression
Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis: Blocked goal → frustration → aggression
Provocation, alcohol, heat: Raise likelihood of aggressive behavior
Deindividuation: Loss of self-awareness in crowds → more aggression
▪️ Norms & Culture
Norm of Reciprocity: Social expectation to help those who help us
Cultural values: Individualistic vs collectivist norms can shape helping/aggression
🥉 LOW PRIORITY
▪️ Gender Differences
Men: More physical aggression
Women: More relational/indirect aggression (e.g., gossip)
▪️ Long-term Development
Early childhood experiences (neglect, modeling violence) → increase aggression
Secure attachment, prosocial modeling → increase altruism
▪️ Media Effects
Violent media increases aggressive thoughts and desensitization
Prosocial media can increase empathy and helping behavior
What are the key topics, subtopics, and keywords for “Groups and Group Relations: Cooperation and Conflict” in Social Psychology, ?
🥇 HIGH PRIORITY
▪️ Definitions
Group: Two or more people who interact and influence each other
Group norms: Shared expectations or rules for behavior
Group roles: Expected behavior patterns based on position in the group
▪️ Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner)
Ingroup vs Outgroup dynamics
Ingroup favoritism: Prefer our own group
Outgroup discrimination: Devalue those outside our group
Minimal group paradigm: Even arbitrary groupings lead to bias
▪️ Realistic Conflict Theory (Sherif)
Competition for limited resources → intergroup conflict
Robbers Cave Experiment:
Phase 1: Group bonding
Phase 2: Competition → hostility
Phase 3: Superordinate goals → restored cooperation
▪️ Superordinate Goals
Shared goals that require cooperation between groups
Effective in reducing conflict (e.g., joint tasks)
🥈 MEDIUM PRIORITY
▪️ Group Cohesion
Strength of bonds among members
High cohesion = more conformity and loyalty
Can be both positive (unity) or negative (groupthink)
▪️ Intergroup Contact Theory (Allport)
Contact reduces prejudice if:
Equal status
Common goals
Institutional support
Cooperation (not competition)
▪️ Group Polarization
Group discussions tend to intensify members’ initial views
Riskier or more extreme decisions can result
🥉 LOW PRIORITY
▪️ Social Facilitation vs Social Loafing
Social facilitation: Presence of others boosts performance on easy tasks
Social loafing: Individuals put in less effort when in a group
▪️ Deindividuation
Loss of self-awareness in large groups → more impulsive, deviant behavior
E.g., riots, online trolling
▪️ Conflict Resolution Techniques
Mediation, negotiation, arbitration
Perspective-taking: Reduces misinterpretation of outgroup’s intent
