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Human Biosciences > Big > Flashcards

Big Flashcards

1
Q

Molecule definition?

A

2 or more atoms joined together

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2
Q

Compound definiton?

A

Molecules containing atoms of more than one element

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3
Q

4 types of tissue?

A

Epithelial
Connective
Muscular
Nervous

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4
Q

Stages of organism level?

A 
Organism
System
Organ
Tissue
Cellular
Chemical
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5
Q

Definition of a basic life process?

A

Processes that distinguish, between a living and non living thing. Failure results in cell and tissue death - which may lead to organism death

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6
Q

What are the basic life processes?

A 
Metabolism
Responsiveness
Movement
Growth
Differentiation
Reproduction
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7
Q

What is mass?

A

Amount of matter in an object

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8
Q

What is weight?

A

Sum of mass and the gravitational attention of the earth

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9
Q

What is density?

A

Mass/volume (g/cm^3)

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10
Q

Describe an ionic bond?

A

Electrons completely transferred
Atoms become ions
Strong electrostatic force between ions

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11
Q

Describe a non polarised covalent bond?

A

Shared electrons
No ionic charge
Weaker than ionic bond

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12
Q

Describe a polarised covalent bond?

A

Unequal sharing of electrons due to a atom having a higher electronegativity, creating a delta positve and delta negative side

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13
Q

Describe what a synthesis reaction is?

A

Anabolic/endergonic (building up)

A + B = AB

Eg. amino acids to proteins

Involves condensation reactions

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14
Q

Describe what a decomposition reaction is?

A

Catabolic/exergonic

AB = A + B

E.g glycogen to glucose

Hydrolysis

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15
Q

Describe what an exchange reaction is?

A

Anabolic and catabolic

Endergonic and exergonic

AB + C = AC + B

Eg. glucose to ATP

Involves oxidation and reduction reaction at the same time

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16
Q

What’s a condensation reaction?

A

Removing water to form a bond

Anabolic process

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17
Q

What’s a hydrolysis reaction?

A

Adding water to break a bond

Catabolic process

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18
Q

Example of what oxidation and reduction reactions do in the body?

A

Break down macronutrients
Eg. Carbohydrate (glucose)
Fat (triglycerides)
Protein (amino acids)

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19
Q

Redox reaction equation?

A

e- donor + e- acceptor = A + B + ATP

E- donor (i.e reducing agent) is oxidised

e- acceptor (i.e. oxidising agent) is reduced

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20
Q

Cellular respiration redox reaction?

A

C6H12O6 + 6O2 = 6CO2 +6H20 + ATP

Glucose + Oxygen = CO2 + Water + energy

Glucose is oxidised

Oxygen is reduced

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21
Q

Oxidation and reduction reaction involving Pyruvate and Lactate?

A

Reduction:

Pyruvate + 2H = (via LDH) Lactate

Oxidation:

Lactate - 2H = (via LDH) Pyruvate

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22
Q

What do Dehydrogenases do?

A

Enzymes that Remove hydrogen

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23
Q

What do oxidases do?

A

Enzymes that Remove oxygen

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24
Q

Examples of co enzymes in redox reactions?

A

NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinculeotide)

FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide)

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25
Q

What reaction does creatine kinase catalyse and when does it occur?

A

ATP + Cr = PCr + ADP + H(+)

Occurs everytime you contract a muscle

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26
Q

Definition of the mass action effect?

A

The effect of the concentration of chemicals in solution on the occurrence of a particular chemical reaction

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27
Q

What does increasing reactants in an equillibrium do?

A

Rate of forward reaction increases

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28
Q

What does increasing products in an equillibrium do?

A

Rate of reverse reaction increases

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29
Q

What is the first law of thermodynamics?

A

Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but simply changed from one form to another

Living and non living things

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30
Q

Definition of a fuel?

A

A compound for which some of it’s chemical energy can be transformed into other forms when a chemical reaction takes place

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31
Q

Features of glycogen?

A

Stored in liver and muscle

Stored with water ( 1g glycogen with 3g water)

Fuel brisk walking for 12 hours

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32
Q

Features of triacylglycerol?

A

Stored in adipose tissue

Occupies 80% of adipose tissue

Fuels brisk walking for 15 days

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33
Q

What is chemical energy?

A

Type of potential energy stored in bonds of compounds and molecules

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34
Q

Features of an exergonic reaction?

A

Releases energy

Downhill reaction

Energy is freed up

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35
Q

Features of an endergonic reaction?

A

Uphill

Store or absorb energy

Typically coupled to an exergonic reaction

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36
Q

What is the second law of thermodynamics?

A

All of the potential energy in a system degrades to the unusable form of kinetic or heat energy

Process of change reflects entropy

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37
Q

3 types of energy conversion?

A

Mechanical work

Chemical work

Transport work

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38
Q

How is energy measured in food?

A

Bomb calorimetry

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39
Q

Order of calories of Carbs, protein, lipids?

A

Smallest is carbs, then protein then lipids

Lipids contain most hydrogens

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40
Q

What is the coefficient of digestibility?

A

Ability of body’s digestive process to extract potential energy

Far higher % in meats than in legumes, as legumes have a lot of fibre

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41
Q

Enzyme definition?

A

A specfic protein catalyst that accelerates the forward and reverse rates of chemical reactions, without being consumed or changed in the reaction

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42
Q

Which enzyme breaks down Hydrogen peroxide down to water and Oxygen?

A

Catalase

43
Q

Features of irreversible reactions?

A

Large energy change
Nonequillibrium reaction
Less common

44
Q

Features of reversible reactions?

A

Small energy change
Equillibrium reaction
Product also a substrate for the reverse reaction
More common

45
Q

Lock and key theory process?

A

Substrate matches active site of enzyme, forming an substrate enzyme complex

Enzyme-substrate complex splits into yield product

Enzyme now available for interaction with other substrate

46
Q

What does the induced fit theory add?

A

That the enzyme changes shape to become complementary to the substrate

47
Q

What is Michaelis constant (Km)?

A

Concentration of substrate required to produce 1/2 the vMax (maximal velocity)

48
Q

3 factors that influence enzymes and why?

A

pH: if not optimal structure of enzyme is altered

Temperature

Enzyme concentration

49
Q

What are co enzymes?

A

Organic substance

Assist with enzyme work

Facillitate enzyme binding with substrate

Temporary carrier

50
Q

What are allosteric enzymes?

A

Produce S shaped graph as substrate concentration affects V max in a strange way

Think of Haemoglobin

51
Q

Features of salts?

A

Ionic bonds
Structural components
Electrolyte properties

52
Q

Features of acids and bases?

A

Covalent bonds

Involved in metabolic control and homeostasis

53
Q

Features of salts and acids/bases?

A

Dissociate in water

Damaging in high concentrations

54
Q

Features of acids (proton donors)?

A

Dissociate in water releasing hydrogen ions

55
Q

What is a H+ ion?

A

Hydrogen atom which has lost an electron

56
Q

3 examples of acids in the human body?

A

Hydrochloric acid in digestion

Carbonic acid in chemical buffering

Citric acid in the second stage of CHO breakdown

57
Q

Features of bases (proton acceptors)?

A

Dissociate in water releasing OH- ions

58
Q

What does Avogadro’s number represent?

A

The number of atoms in 12g of 12C, approximately 6.02 x 10^23

59
Q

What does mM mean?

A

Millimoles per dm^3

So will be the same as moles just multiplied by 10^-3

60
Q

Formula for pH?

A

pH = -log10 {H+}

61
Q

What does logarithmic scale mean for pH?

A

a pH of 5 is 10x more acidic than one of pH6

and a pH of 4 is 100x more acidic than a pH of 6

62
Q

Features of strong acids?

A

Dissociate completely
Irreversible
An example is HCl

63
Q

Features of weak acids?

A

Dissoociate partially
Reach equilibrium
Therefore reversible and concentration driven

An example is Carbonic acid

64
Q

Definition of a buffer?

A

Chemical and physiological mechanisms that moderate changes in {H+}

65
Q

What does pH of smaller than 7.35 trigger in the blood?

A

Acidosis

66
Q

What does pH of higher than 7.45 trigger in the blood?

A

Alkalosis

67
Q

3 mechanisms that regulate pH in the blood?

A

Chemical buffering
Pulmonary ventilation
Renal function

68
Q

Describe the intergrated buffering system in the blood?

A

The main chemical buffer is bicarbonate

H(+) + HCO3- = H2CO3 = CO2 + H2O

Hydrogen ion + bicarbonate = Carbonic acid = Carbon Dioxide and Water

So excess H+ will drive reaction to the right

And excess CO2 drives reaction to the left

As CO2 in constantly removed by the lungs, the system keeps working, provided there is sufficient HCO3-

H+ is excreted by the kidneys, regenerating the HCO3- in the process

Acidosis drives reaction to the right

Alkalosis drives the reaction to the left

69
Q

What are the possible variations in the arterial?

A

PO2
PCO2
pH
and temperature

70
Q

What provides the most important respiratory stimulus?

A

PCO2, small increases in inspired air trigger large increases in ventillation

pH of the plasma is also monitored as acidosis reflects CO2 retention and carbonic acid formation

Inspiratory activity increases to eliminate CO2 and reduce arterial levels of carbonic acid

71
Q

Features of a chemical buffer?

A

Provides the first line of defence

Consists of a weak acid and the salt of that acid

When H+ concentration is elevated, the reaction produces the weak acid

In contrast, when H+ concentration is low the buffering reaction moves in the opposite direction and releases H+

Immediate response, catalysed by enzymes

72
Q

Features of renal buffering?

A

Slow response

Renal tubules regulate acidity through chemical reactions that secrete ammonia and H+ into urine, and reabsorb alkali, chloride and bicarbonate

So restores bicarbonate into the blood

It’s the only pathway to eliminate acids other than the carbonic acid

So urine acidity reflects {H+}

73
Q

Features of ventilatory buffering?

A

Fast response, important during exercise

Changes the CO2 concentration

Increase in H+ conc stimulates the ventilatory control, and therefore alveolar ventillation, and therefore CO2 removal

74
Q

What can intense exercise cause?

A

Increase H+ concentration from CO2 production and lactate formation

Large temporary disturbances in acid-base balance

A low plasma pH can cause nausea, headache and dizziness

75
Q

When does the stimulus to breath come from?

A

Increased arterial PCO2 and H+ conc

76
Q

What does hyperventilating before breath holding do?

A

Causes alveolar PCO2 to decrease

Extends breath holding duration

77
Q

Homeostasis definition?

A

The maintenance of internal conditions

78
Q

Basic structure of the negative feedback loop?

A

Receptor (detects internal conditions) to Integrator (decides wha to do) to effector (makes required change) then back to receptor

79
Q

Functions of cell membranes?

A

Primary function is a barrier, prevents entry of some substances, and retains others

Regulates transport of fuel into the cell

Provides surfaces for protein attachment

Communication between extra and intra-cellular environments

80
Q

What are cell membranes made up of?

A

Membrane is a bi layer of phospholipids

Membrane spanning proteins (intrinsic)

Associated proteins (extrinsic)

It is semi permeable - allows some small uncharged molecules through, larger molecules require transport systems

81
Q

Types of passive (no energy) transport?

A

Simple diffusion
Facillitated diffusion
Osmosis
Filtration

82
Q

Types of active (requires energy) transport

A

Sodium-Potassium pumps

Bulk transport - Endocytosis, Exocytosis, Phagocytosis

Secondary active transport

83
Q

Definition of simple diffusion?

A

The passive movement of molecules or particles from regions of higher concentrations to regions of lower
concentrations

84
Q

Definition of facilitated diffusion?

A

Transport of substances across a biological membrane from an area of higher to lower concentration by means of a carrier molecule

So requires a transport membrane protein, which ports can open and shut. This may be stimulated by voltage, hormones, ADP/ATP ratios

85
Q

What do leak channels do?

A

Let substances leak out/in, down a concentration gradient

86
Q

Describe SOPI (sodium out, potassium in) pumps (very basic)?

A

Function - The Na+ and K+ pump restores the electro-chemical gradient following contraction

Resting potential membrane is -70mV

There are K+ and a Na+ leak channels

There are Na+ pumps which are pumping them outside the membrane (requires ATP) 3 of them per time

K+ pumps are pumping (requires ATP) them into the membrane (2 at the time)

Voltage gated channels open for Na+ open after a stimulus creates a -55mmV, it leaks in bringing potential up to +30mV, opening the K+ voltage gates, letting them leak out also the Na+ channels close

87
Q

Describe insulin activated glucose transport?

A

Insulin binds to receptors, can move into cell down a concentration gradient

88
Q

Describe the homeostatic process of maintaining blood glucose levels?

A

If it’s high:

Beta cells of pancreas stimulated to release insulin into the blood

Insulin causes body cells to take up more glucose

It also causes the liver to take up glucose and store it as glycogen

Blood glucose level declines to a set point, stimulus for insulin release diminishes

Low blood glucose levels:

Alpha cells of pancreas stimulated to release glucagon into the blood

Glucagon causes liver to break down glycogen and release glucose into the blood

Blood glucose rises to a certain point stimulus for glucagon release diminshes

89
Q

What is osmosis?

A

The simple diffusion of water (solvent), across a partially permeable membrane from an area of high concentration to low

90
Q

Examples of osmotic pressure?

A

Put a cell in isotonic solution, there is no net movement of water

Put cell in hypotonic water, water moves into cell and may cause it to burst (osmotic lysis)

Put cell in Hypertonic solution, water moves out of the cell, causing it’s cytoplasm to shrink (plasmolysis)

91
Q

Osmolaity definition?

A

The concentration of a solution expressed as the total number of solute particles per kilogram

92
Q

Osmolarity definition?

A

The concentration of a solution expressed as the total number of solute particles per litre

93
Q

Features of hypotonic drink?

A

1-3% carb content

Quickly replaces fluids lost by sweating but low in carbs

Used by people who need hydration without the replace of carbs

94
Q

Features of an isotonic drink

A

6-8% carb content

Quickly replace the fluids lost by sweating and provide a boost of carbohydrates

95
Q

Features of Hypertonic drinks?

A

10%+ carb content

To supplement carbohydrate intake

Used by people who need a lot of energy, or to top up muscle glycogen stores after a workout

96
Q

Why not just drink pure water to rehydrate?

A

Can lead to water intoxication - fatal disturbance in brain function when normal balance of electrolytes is pushed outside safe limits by excessive water intake

97
Q

Definition of filtration?

A

Movement of water and solutes across the membrane due to hydrostatic pressure from the Cardio Vascular system

98
Q

What is endocytosis?

A

Bulk transport into the cell (forms a vesivle from the plasma membrane)

99
Q

What is exocytosis?

A

Bulk transport out of the cell (released via a secretory vesicle)

100
Q

What is phagocytosis?

A

Ingestion of bacteria or other material by phagocytes

101
Q

What is secondary active transport?

A

A form of active transport, across a biological membrane in which a transporter protein couples the movement of an ion (typically Na+ or H+) down it’s electrochemical gradient to the uphill movement of another molecule or ion against a concentration/electrochemical gradient

102
Q

Describe insulin release from Pancreatic Beta cell?

A

Normally K+ ATP sensitive channel is open, and K+ can diffuse out of the cell

Voltage gated calcium channels are normally closed, doesn’t let calcium into the cell

High glucose in blood

Glucose enters the Beta cell via facilitated diffusion (GLUT 2 transporter)

Glucose is metabolised to Produce more ATP, so ratio between ATP and ADP increases and ATP sensitive potassium channel closes

Potassium can no longer leave cell

Causes depolarisation of membrane (becomes more positively charged)

Opening the Voltage gated calcium channels

Calcium flows in and stimulates the release of insulin via excytosis from storage granules

103
Q

Describe the process that generates a muscle contraction?

A

Nerve impulse arrives at terminal of motor neuron. ACh leaves neuron via exocytosis, this happens by calcium voltage gates opening up, and Ca2+ triggers exocytosis of ACh

ACh diffuses across synaptic cleft and triggers an action potential (allows Sodium to enter synaptic cleft)

Muscle AP travels along transverse tubule opening Ca2+ channels in SR (sarcoplasmic reticulum) , allowing calcium ions into sarcoplasm

Ca2+ binds to troponin, exposing binding sites for myosin

Myosin heads bind to actin and initiate power stroke

Ca2+ release channels in SR close and Ca2+ active transport pumps use ATP to restore low level of Ca2+ in sarcoplasm

Human Biosciences (69 decks)

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