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Module 9 > Breathing & Airways > Flashcards

Breathing & Airways Flashcards

1
Q

what are the jobs of the lungs

A

to bring in fresh air rich in oxygen needed to feul the body + expel the waste gas (CO2) produced from cells in body

movement of air in/out of the lungs (breathing) must be coupled to cellular respiration

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2
Q

how is the respiratory system divided

A

upper and lower

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3
Q

what does the upper resp system comprised of

A

nares (nostrils)

nasal passages

pharynx

larynx

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4
Q

what is the function of upper resp system (3)

A
  1. conduct air to and from the lungs
  2. filter out particles
  3. warm the air
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5
Q

what is the lower resp tract comprised

A

trachea

bronchi

bronchioles

alveoli (site for gas exchange)

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6
Q

what filters air coming into resp tract

A

trachea lined by pseudo-stratified ciliated columnar epithelium

inhaled particles stick to mucus –> mucus moved towards mouth by beating cilia

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7
Q

what occurs at the alveoli

A

gas exchange

O2 moves from air to capillaries

CO2 moves from capillaries to air

move by diffusion

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8
Q

what processes are involved in gas exchange

A

O2 consumption and CO2 production vary with metabolic rate (variable across species/lifestyle/body size)

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9
Q

when does O2 consumption vary

A

when animals exercise their muscles need more O2

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10
Q

what is maximal O2 consumption (VO2max) directly related to

A

directly related to total mass of mitochondira witihin the skeletal muscles

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11
Q

what is TLC

A

total volume of air lungs can hold

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12
Q

what is RV

A

total volume of air remaining after forced expiration

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13
Q

what is VC

A

total volume of air that can be moved

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14
Q

what is FRC

A

amount of air remaining after quite resting exhalation

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15
Q

what is TV

A

total volume of air moved in/out during quiet breathing

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16
Q

what is VE

A

total volume of air breathed per minute (minute ventilation, VE)

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17
Q

how is VE determined by

A

volume of each breath (VT) and breathing frequency (breaths per minute)

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18
Q

what is anatomic dead space

A

regions where air flows through conducting airways (not involved in gas exchange)

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19
Q

how does dead space occur in the wall of alveoli

A

ventilated alveoli are not perfused with blood

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20
Q

what is physiologic dead space

A

sum of both (anatomic) and determines portion of each breath not available for gas exchange

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21
Q

what is the formula for dead space

A

VT = VA + VD

VT = volume of each breath

VA = air that enters perfused alveoli

VD = volume that remains in physiologic dead space

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22
Q

what is the dead space/tidal volume ratio (VD/VT)

A

the fraction of each breath ventilating the physiological dead space

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23
Q

how does the dead space/tidal volume ration vary among species

A

33% in small species (dogs)

50-70% in larger species such as cattle and dogs

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24
Q

how does panting affect VT and f

A

small VT and high f

more air ventilates the dead space = increased water evaporation and heat loss

cold stress –> increases VT and decreases f –> retain heat

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25
Q

what is equipment dead space

A

excessively long endotracheal tubes or overly large face masks create a large amount of equipment dead space

animals must increase its VT to obtain adequate alveolar ventilation

26
Q

what occurs during inspiration

A

active

diaphragm contracts downwards pushing abdominal contents outwards

external intercostals pull ribs outwards and upwards

27
Q

what occurs during expiration

A

passive

elastic recoil (except horses which have active phase to exhalation)

28
Q

what are the muscles of inspiration

A

diaphragm major inspiratory –> dome-shaped skeletal muscle

other resp skeletal muscles active during more strenous breathing

29
Q

what are the muscles of inspiration and expiration

A
30
Q

what are the volume and pressure changes during inspiration and expiration (14)

A
  1. beginning of inspiration, no flow –> PA=0, PB=0
  2. inspiratory muscles contract –> increases thoracic volume
  3. pleural pressure becomes more negative
  4. increase in transpulmonary pressure
  5. lungs expand and alveolar volume increases
  6. PA becomes negative (below PB)
  7. air flows into alveoli (from higher to lower pressure)
  8. end inspiration –> muscles stop contracting, thorax and alveoli stop expanding PA = PB (no flow)
  9. beginning expiration: thoracic volume decreases
  10. Ppl & PL return to pre-inspiration values
  11. thorax and lungs recoil (elastic recoil pressure)
  12. air in alveoli compressed
  13. PA becomes greater than PB
  14. air flows out of lungs
31
Q

what is compliance and how is it calculated

A

measure of distensibility of an elastic structure

for the lung –> calculated as the change in lung volume that occurs for a given change in transpulmonary pressure

(C= V/P)

32
Q

how compliant is the lung

A

very compliant –> readily increases in volume with modest changes in transpulmonary pressure

33
Q

what is elasticity

A

materials that recoil

elastance relates to the work required to inflate and deflate the lungs and is the reciprocal of compliance

E = P/V

34
Q

what are the alveoli lined with

A

thin layer of aqueous fluid –> surfactant

35
Q

where is the surfactant produced in the lungs

A

type II alveolar epithelial cells

36
Q

what does surfactant contain and what is its function

A

lipid dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine and proteins

displaces water at the fluid/air interface

1. reduces surface tension (cohesive forces where liquid meets air)

2. increases lung compliance

37
Q

what are these cells

A
38
Q

what are these structures

A
39
Q

what is airway resistance (R)

A

force that impedes airflow along the respiratory passage

40
Q

what is a source of airway resistance

A

upper airways are the major source of R –> large flow of air through a modest tube

41
Q

what occurs to airway resistance as lung volume increases

A

airway resistance decreases

42
Q

what are the blood supply to the lung

A
  1. pulmonary circulation (low pressure)
  2. bronchial circulation
43
Q

what is the pulmonary circulation

A

arteries: brings deoxygenated blood from heart to pulmonary capillaries around alveoli and

veins: oxygenated blood from lung to heart (reservoir of blood for increase cardiac output)

44
Q

what is bronchial circulation

A

brings oxygenated blood to lung parenchyma

45
Q

what are the structures

A
46
Q

what is extra alveolar

A

pulmonary arteries/veins

47
Q

what are alveolar

A

alveolar capillaries

thin walled –> perfuse alveolar septa

48
Q

what is the direction of pulmonary circulation in quadruped animals

A

caudodorsal flow –> increased by exercise

49
Q

what is alveolar hypoxia

A

potent constrictor of small pulmonary arteries (beneficial for localized alveolar hypoxia)

50
Q

what is bronchial circulation

A

part of systemic circulation

venous drainage is unique –> returns to the heart by both system and pulmonary circulations

51
Q

where does deoxygenated bronchial venous blood drain

A

drains into the pulmonary veins and left ventricle –> deoxygenated blood leaving from the bronchial veins mixing with oxygenated blood leaving the lungs in pulmonary veins

one form of anatomic shunt because deoxygenated blood leaving bronchial circulation does not pass alveoli but is shunted to left side of heart

52
Q

what must occur for adequate gas exchange

A

ventilation (V) and perfusion (Q) must match

53
Q

what is the V/Q ratio

A

ratio of ventilation to blood flow

ratio can be defined for single alveolus, a group of alveoli or entire lung

54
Q

what occurs when ventilation exceeds perfusion

A

V/Q > 1

55
Q

what occurs when perfusion exceeds ventilation

A

V/Q < 1

56
Q

what occurs when pulmonary blood flow and ventilation are mismatched

A

impaired O2 and CO2 transfer

57
Q

what are lung zones

A

V/Q at apex = 3 (wasted ventilation)

V/Q at base = 0.6 (wasted perfusion)

both ventilation and perfusion are greater at the base of the lung than the apex of the lung

58
Q

what is V/Q = O

A

airway obstruction (shunt) ex. foreign body aspiration

59
Q

what is V/Q = ∞

A

blood flow obstruction (physiological dead space) ex. pulmonary embolus

60
Q

when does optimal gas exchange occur

A

brings together air and blood in the alveolus ex. the matching of ventilation and blood flow (perfusion)

61
Q

when can gas exchange not occur

A

if an alveolus receives blood but no ventilation and vice versa

ideally each part of the lung would receive equal amounts of ventilation however uneven ventilation mostly becomes apparent in disease

62
Q

when does uneven ventilation occur

A

decreased compliance (pneumonia) or local airway obstruction (mucus, bronchoconstriction, foreign body)

important for recumbent animals becuase lowermost part of lung compressed –> anesthetized large animals

Module 9 (43 decks)

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